SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

C H A P T E R

4 PROJECT
MANAGEMENT

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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Chapter Four Project Management

• Define the terms project and project management, and differentiate between
project and process management.
• Describe the causes of failed information systems and technology projects.
• Describe the basic competencies required of project managers.
• Describe the basic functions of project management.
• Differentiate between PERT and Gantt charts as project management tools.
• Describe the role of project management software as it relates to project
management tools.
• Describe eight activities in project management.
• Define joint project planning and its role in project management.
• Define scope and a write a statement of work to document scope.
• Use a work breakdown structure to decompose a project into tasks.
• Estimate tasks’ durations, and specify intertask dependencies on a PERT chart.
• Assign resources to a project and produce a project schedule with a Gantt
chart.
• Assign people to tasks and direct the team effort.
• Use critical path analysis to adjust schedule and resource allocations in
response to schedule and budget deviations.
• Manage user expectations of a project and adjust project scope.
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Chapter Map

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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Project and Project Management

A project is a [temporary] sequence of unique,

complex, and connected activities having one goal or
purpose and that must be completed by specific time,
within budget, and according to specification.

Project management is the process of scoping,

planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and
controlling the development of an acceptable system
at a minimum cost within a specified time frame.

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Project versus Process Management

Project management is the process of scoping,

planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and
controlling the development of an acceptable system
at a minimum cost within a specified time frame.

Process management is an ongoing activity that

documents, manages the use of, and improves an
organization’s chosen methodology (the “process”) for
system development. Process management is
concerned with the activities, deliverables, and quality
standards to be applied to all projects.

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Measures of Project Success

– The resulting information system is

acceptable to the customer.
– The system was delivered “on time.”
– The system was delivered “within budget.”
– The system development process had a
minimal impact on ongoing business
operations.

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Causes of Project Failure

• Failure to establish upper-management commitment to the
project
• Lack of organization’s commitment to the system
development methodology
• Taking shortcuts through or around the system development
methodology
• Poor expectations management
• Premature commitment to a fixed budget and schedule
• Poor estimating techniques
• Overoptimism
• The mythical man-month (Brooks, 1975)
• Inadequate people management skills
• Failure to adapt to business change
• Insufficient resources
• Failure to “manage to the plan”
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Project Manager Competencies

• Business awareness • Anticipation of impact

• Business partner orientation • Resourceful use of influence
• Commitment to quality • Motivating others
• Initiative • Communication skills
• Information gathering • Developing others
• Analytical thinking • Monitoring and controlling
• Conceptual thinking • Self-confidence
• Interpersonal awareness • Stress management
• Organizational awareness • Concern for credibility
• Flexibility

(Adapted from Wysocki, Beck, and Crane, Effective Project Management:

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Project Management Functions

– Scoping
– Planning
– Estimating
– Scheduling
– Organizing
– Directing
– Controlling
– Closing

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Project Management Tools & Techniques

A PERT chart is a graphical network model that

depicts a project’s tasks and the relationships between
those tasks.

A Gantt chart is a simple horizontal bar chart that

depicts project tasks against a calendar. Each bar
represents a named project task. The tasks are listed
vertically in the left-hand column. The horizontal axis
is a calendar timeline.

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PERT Chart
Project Initiation
5-3-2001 N/A
Legend
5-3-2001 N/A Task Task
Scheduled Scheduled intertask Scheduled Scheduled
Start Finish dependency Start Finish
Actual Start Actual Actual Start Actual
Preliminary Investigation Finish Finish

5-3-2001 5-12-2001
5-3-2001 5-11-2001

Problem Analysis Requirements Analysis Decision Analysis

5-12-2001 6-12-2001 5-28-2001 7-15-2001 6-13-2001 7-30-2001
5-12-2001 6-14-2001 5-30-2001 7-18-2001 6-13-2001 8-3-2001

Design Construction
7-3-2001 9-25-2001 7-19-2001 11-13-2001
7-5-2001 10-9-2001 7-20-2001 In Progress

Implementation
9-10-2001 12-14-2001
TBD TBD

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Gantt Chart

2001
ID Task Name
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1 Preliminary investigation
2 Problem analysis

3 Requirements analysis
4 Decision analysis
5 Design
6 Construction

7 Implementation

Today
Complete Task
Legend
Incomplete Task

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Microsoft Project Gantt Chart

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Microsoft Project PERT Chart

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Project Management Life Cycle

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Joint Project Planning Strategy

Joint project planning (JPP) is a strategy wherein all

stakeholders in a project (meaning system owners,
users, analysts, designers, and builders) participate in
a one-to-three day project management workshop, the
result of which is consensus agreement on project
scope, schedule, resources, and budget. (Of course,
subsequent workshops or meetings may be required to
adjust scope, budget, and schedule.)

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Activity 1: Negotiate Scope

Scope defines the boundaries of a project—What part

of the business is to be studied, analyzed, designed,
constructed, implemented, and ultimately improved?
– Product
– Quality
– Time
– Cost
– Resources

A statement of work is a narrative description of the

work to be performed as part of a project. Common
synonyms include scope statement, project definition,
project overview, and document of understanding.

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Statement of Work
I. Purpose
II. Background
A. Problem, opportunity, or directive statement
B. History leading to project request
C. Project goal and objectives
D. Product description
III. Scope
(notice the use of your information system building blocks)
A. Stakeholders
B. Data
C. Processes
D. Locations
IV. Project Approach
A. Route
B. Deliverables
V. Managerial Approach
A. Team building considerations
B. Manager and experience
C. Training requirements
D. Meeting schedules
E. Reporting methods and frequency
F. Conflict management
G. Scope management (continued)
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Statement of Work (concluded)

VI. Constraints
A. Start date
B. Deadlines
C. Budget
D. Technology
VII. Ballpark Estimates
A. Schedule
B. Budget
VIII. Conditions of Satisfaction
A. Success criteria
B. Assumptions
C. Risks
IX. Appendices

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Activity 2: Identify Tasks

A work breakdown structure (WBS) is a

hierarchical decomposition of the project into phases,
activities, and tasks.

Milestones are events that signify the accomplishment

or completion of major deliverables during a project.

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Work Breakdown Structures

0
PROJECT
1 Phase 1 of the project … GOAL
2 Phase 2 of the project …
2.1 Activity 1 of Phase 2
… 1 2 3
2.2 Activity 2 of Phase 2
PHASE PHASE PHASE

=
2.2.1 Task 1 of Activity
2.2 in Phase 2
2.2.2 Task 2 of Activity
2.2 in Phase 2 2.1 2.2 2.3
2.2.3 Task 3 of Activity
2.2 in Phase 2 ACTIVITY ACTIVITY ACTIVITY

2.3 Activity 3 of Phase 2

…
3 Phase 3 of the project … 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3
TASK TASK TASK

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Activity 3: Estimate Task Durations

1. Estimate the minimum amount of time it would

take to perform the task. We'll call this the
optimistic duration (OD).
2. Estimate the maximum amount of time it would
take to perform the task. We'll call this the
pessimistic duration (PD).
3. Estimate the expected duration (ED) that will be
needed to perform the task.
4. Calculate the most likely duration (D) as follows:

D = (1 x OD) + (4 x ED) + (1 x PD)

6
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Activity 4: Specify Intertask Dependencies

• Finish-to-start (FS)—The finish of one task triggers

the start of another task.
• Start-to-start (SS)—The start of one task triggers the
start of another task.
• Finish-to-finish (FF)—Two tasks must finish at the
same time.
• Start-to-finish (SF)—The start of one task signifies the
finish of another task.

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Entering Intertask Dependencies

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Scheduling Strategies

Forward scheduling establishes a project start date

and then schedules forward from that date. Based on
the planned duration of required tasks, their
interdependencies, and the allocation of resources to
complete those tasks, a projected project completion
date is calculated.

Reverse scheduling establishes a project deadline and

then schedules backward from that date. Essentially,
tasks, their duration, interdependencies, and resources
must be considered to ensure that the project can be
completed by the deadline.

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A Project Calendar

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Activity 5: Assign Resources

• People—inclusive of all the system owners, users,

analysts, designers, builders, external agents, and
clerical help that will be involved in the project in any
way, shape, or form.
• Services—a service such as a quality review that may
be charged on a per use basis.
• Facilities and equipment—including all rooms and
technology that will be needed to complete the project.
• Supplies and materials—everything from pencils,
paper, notebooks, toner cartridges, etc.
• Money—A translation of all of the above into the
language of accounting—budgeted dollars!
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Defining Project Resources

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Assigning Project Resources

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Resource Leveling

Resource leveling is a strategy used to correct

resource overallocations by some combination of
delaying or splitting tasks.

There are two techniques for resource leveling:

• task delaying
• task splitting

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Task Splitting and Delaying

• The critical path for a project is that sequence of dependent

tasks that have the largest sum of most likely durations. The
critical path determines the earliest possible completion date of
the project.

– Tasks that are on the critical path cannot be delayed without

delaying the entire project schedule. To achieve resource
leveling, critical tasks can only be split.

• The slack time available for any noncritical task is the amount
of delay that can be tolerated between the starting time and
completion time of a task without causing a delay in the
completion date of the entire project.

– Tasks that have slack time can be delayed to achieve resource

leveling
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Activity 6: Direct the Team Effort

• Supervision resources ORIENTATION STAGE

 Establish structure and rules
FORMING
– The DEADLINE – A Novel 

Clarify team member relationships
Identify responsibilities
About Project Management  Develop a plan to achieve goals

– The One Minute Manager

– The Care and Feeding of INTERNAL PROBLEM-SOLVING STAGE

Monkeys  Resolve interpersonal conflict STORMING

 Further clarify rules and goals
 Develop a participative climate

• Stages of Team Maturity

(see figure to the right)
GROWTH AND PRODUCTIVITY STAGE
 Direct team activity toward goals
 Provide and get feedback NORMING
 Share ideas–growing cohesion
 Individuals feel good about each other

EVALUATION AND CONTROL STAGE

 More feedback and evaluation
 Adherence to team norms PERFORMING
 Roles of team strengthened
 Strong team motivation to share goals

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Activity 7: Monitor and Control Progress

• Progress reporting
• Change management
• Expectations management
• Schedule adjustments—critical path analysis
(CPA)

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Sample Outline for a Progress Report

I. Cover Page
A. Project name or identification
B. Project manager
C. Date or report
II. Summary of progress
A. Schedule analysis
B. Budget analysis
C. Scope analysis
(describe any changes that may have an impact on future progress)
D. Process analysis
(describe any problems encountered with strategy or methodology)
E. Gantt progress chart(s)
III. Activity analysis
A. Tasks completed since last report
B. Current tasks and deliverables
C. Short term future tasks and deliverables
IV. Previous problems and issues
A. Action item and status
B. New or revised action items
1. Recommendation
2. Assignment of responsibility
3. Deadline
(continued)
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Sample Outline for a Progress Report (concluded)

V. New problems and issues
A. Problems
(actual or anticipated)
B. Issues
(actual or anticipated)
C. Possible solutions
1. Recommendation
2. Assignment of responsibility
3. Deadline
VI. Attachments
(include relevant printouts from project management software)

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Progress on a Gantt Chart

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Expectations Management

An expectations management matrix is a rule-

driven tool for helping management understand the
dynamics and impact of changing project parameters
such as cost, schedule, scope, and quality.

PRIORITIES  Max or Min Constrain Accept

 MEASURES OF SUCCESS

Cost

Schedule

Scope and/or Quality

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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Lunar Project Expectations Management

PRIORITIES  Max or Min Constrain Accept

 MEASURES OF SUCCESS

Cost

 $20 billion (estimated)

x
Schedule

 Dec 31, 1969 (deadline)

x
Scope and/or Quality

 Land a man on the moon

x
 Get him back safely

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Typical, Initial Expectations for a Project

PRIORITIES  Max or Min Constrain Accept

 MEASURES OF SUCCESS

Cost x

Schedule x

Scope and/or Quality x

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Adjusting Expectations

PRIORITIES  Max or Min Constrain Accept

 MEASURES OF SUCCESS

Cost
X+
 Adjusted budget
Increase
budget

Schedule
X-
 Adjusted deadline
Extend
deadline

Scope and/or Quality

X+
 Adjusted scope
Accept
expanded
requirements

Edit Date: 10/18/99 10:33:17 AM

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Changing Priorities

PRIORITIES  Max or Min Constrain Accept

 MEASURES OF SUCCESS

Cost x x

Schedule x

Scope and/or Quality x x

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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Critical Path Analysis (and Slack Time)

1. Using intertask dependencies, determine every

possible path through the project.
2. For each path, sum the durations of all tasks in the
path.
3. The path with the longest total duration is the critical
path.
– The critical path for a project is that sequence of
dependent tasks that have the largest sum of most
likely durations. The critical path determines the
earliest completion date of the project.
– The slack time available for any noncritical task is the
amount of delay that can be tolerated between the
starting time and completion time of a task without
causing a delay in the completion date of the entire
project.
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SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS 5th Edition Whitten Bentley Dittman

Critical Path
TASK D

Duration
Tue 2/20/01 7 days
Tue 2/20/01 0 days

TASK A TASK B TASK C TASK E TASK I

Mon 2/5/01 3 days Wed 2/7/01 2 days Fri 2/9/01 2 days Mon 2/19/01 6 days Tue 2/27/01 5 days
Mon 2/5/01 0 days Wed 2/7/01 0 days Fri 2/9/01 0 days Tue 2/20/01 1 day Tue 2/27/01 0 days

TASK F TASK G

The critical Wed 2/14/01 3 days

Fri 2/16/01 2 days
Fri 2/16/01 2 days
Tue 2/20/01 2 days

path is
highlighted Slack Time

in red TASK H

Thu 2/15/01 1 day

Tue 2/20/01 3 days

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