Formal Languages

Models of Computation
Computation

CPU memory

2
temporary memory

input memory
CPU
output memory

Program memory

3
 3
Example: f ( x)  x

temporary memory

input memory
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx
2
compute x x
4
 3
f ( x)  x

temporary memory
input memory
x2
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx
2
compute x x
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 3
temporary memory f ( x)  x
z  2*2  4
f ( x)  z * 2  8
input memory
x2
CPU
output memory
Program memory
compute xx
2
compute x x
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 3
temporary memory f ( x)  x
z  2*2  4
f ( x)  z * 2  8
input memory
x2
CPU
f ( x)  8
Program memory output memory
compute xx
2
compute x x
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 Automata theory

Automata theory studies the laws of computation.

In reality, the laws of computation are not quite understood,

but automata theory is a good start.
 A simple computer

H
I TC
SW

BATTERY

input: switch
output: light bulb
actions: flip switch
states: on, off
 A simple “computer”

H
I TC
SW

f
BATTERY
start off on
f

input: switch
bulb is on if and only if
output: light bulb
there was an odd number of
actions: f for “flip switch” flips
states: on, off
 Another “computer”

1
1 start off off
1
BATTERY 2 2 2 2
1
2 on
off 1
inputs: switches 1 and 2
bulb is on if and only if
actions: 1 for “flip switch 1”
both switches were flipped
actions: 2 for “flip switch 2” an odd number of times
states: on, off
 Automaton
temporary memory

Automaton
input memory
CPU
output memory

Program memory

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 Different Kinds of Automata
Automata are distinguished by the temporary memory

• Finite Automata: no temporary memory

• Pushdown Automata: stack

• Turing Machines: random access memory

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 Finite Automaton

temporary memory

input memory
Finite
Automaton
output memory

Example: Vending Machines

(small computing power)
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 Pushdown Automaton
Stack Push, Pop

input memory
Pushdown
Automaton
output memory

Example: Compilers for Programming Languages

(medium computing power)
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 Turing Machine

Random Access Memory

input memory
Turing
Machine
output memory

Examples: Any Algorithm

(highest computing power)
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 Power of Automata

Finite Pushdown Turing

Automata Automata Machine

Less power More power

Solve more
computational problems
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Languages

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A language is a set of strings

String: A sequence of letters

Examples: “cat”, “dog”, “house”, …

Defined over an alphabet:

   a, b, c, , z

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 Alphabets and Strings
We will use small alphabets:    a, b

Strings
a
ab u  ab
abba v  bbbaaa
baba w  abba
aaabbbaabab
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 String Operations

w  a1a2  an abba
v  b1b2 bm bbbaaa

Concatenation

wv  a1a2  anb1b2 bm abbabbbaaa

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w  a1a2  an ababaaabbb

Reverse

R
w  an a2a1 bbbaaababa

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 String Length
w  a1a2  an
Length: w n

Examples: abba  4
aa  2
a 1
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 Length of Concatenation

uv  u  v

Example: u  aab, u  3
v  abaab, v  5

uv  aababaab  8
uv  u  v  3  5  8
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 Empty String
A string with no letters: 

Observations:  0

w  w  w

abba  abba  abba

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 Substring
Substring of string:
a subsequence of consecutive characters

String Substring
abbab ab
abbab abba
abbab b
abbab bbab
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 Prefix and Suffix
abbab
Prefixes Suffixes
 abbab w  uv
a bbab
prefix
ab bab
suffix
abb ab
abba b
abbab 
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 Another Operation
n
w  ww w
 
n

Example:  abba   abbaabba

2

0
Definition: w 

 abba   
0

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 The * Operation
 * : the set of all possible strings from
alphabet 

   a, b
*    , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,

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 The + Operation
 : the set of all possible strings from

alphabet  except 

   a, b
*    , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,


   * 

   a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, aab,
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 Languages
A language is any subset of *

Example:    a, b
*    , a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa,

Languages:  
 a, aa, aab
{ , abba, baba, aa, ab, aaaaaa}
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 Note that:

Sets   { }  {}

Set size {}    0

Set size {}  1

String length  0
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 Another Example

n n
An infinite language L  {a b : n  0}


ab
L abb  L
aabb
aaaaabbbbb
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 Operations on Languages
The usual set operations

 a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab  {a, ab, bb, aaaa}

 a, ab, aaaa  bb, ab  {ab}
 a, ab, aaaa   bb, ab   a, aaaa
Complement: L   * L

 a, ba    , b, aa, ab, bb, aaa,

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 Reverse

R R
Definition: L  {w : w  L}

Examples:  ab, aab, baba   ba, baa, abab

R

n n
L  {a b : n  0}

R n n
L  {b a : n  0}
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 Concatenation

Definition: L1L2   xy : x  L1, y  L2 

Example:  a, ab, ba b, aa

  ab, aaa, abb, abaa, bab, baaa

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 Another Operation
Definition: n
L  LL L
n

 a, b   a, b a, b a, b 
3

 aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb

0
Special case: L   

 a , bba , aaa  0   
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 More Examples

n n
L  {a b : n  0}

2 n n m m
L  {a b a b : n, m  0}

2
aabbaaabbb  L

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 Star-Closure (Kleene *)

0 1 2
Definition: L*  L  L  L 

Example:
 , 
a, bb, 
 
 a, bb *   
 aa , abb, bba , bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
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 Positive Closure

 1 2
Definition: L  L  L 
 L *   

a, bb, 
  
 a, bb  aa, abb, bba, bbbb, 
aaa, aabb, abba, abbbb,
 
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