Chapter 39

Relativity
A Brief Overview of Modern Physics

20th Century revolution

 1900 Max Planck
 Basic ideas leading to Quantum theory
 1905 Einstein
 Special Theory of Relativity
21st Century
 Story is still incomplete

Section Introduction
Basic Problems of Newtonian Mechanics

Newtonian mechanics fails to describe properly the motion of objects whose

speeds approach that of light.
Newtonian mechanics is a limited theory.
 It places no upper limit on speed.
 It is contrary to modern experimental results.
 Newtonian mechanics becomes a specialized case of Einstein’s special
theory of relativity.
 When speeds are much less than the speed of light.

Introduction
Galilean Relativity

To describe a physical event, a frame of reference must be established.

There is no absolute inertial frame of reference.
 This means that the results of an experiment performed in a vehicle moving
with uniform velocity will be identical to the results of the same experiment
performed in a stationary vehicle.
Reminders about inertial frames:
 Objects subjected to no forces will experience no acceleration.
 Any system moving at constant velocity with respect to an inertial frame
must also be in an inertial frame.
According to the principle of Galilean relativity, the laws of mechanics must be
the same in all inertial frames of reference.

Section 39.1
Galilean Relativity – Example

The truck moves with a constant

velocity with respect to the ground.
The observer in the truck throws a ball
straight up.
 It appears to move in a vertical
path.
 The law of gravity and equations of
motion under uniform acceleration
are obeyed.

Section 39.1
Galilean Relativity – Example, cont.

There is a stationary observer on the ground.

 Views the path of the ball thrown to be a parabola
 The ball has a velocity to the right equal to the velocity of the truck.
Section 39.1
Galilean Relativity – Example, conclusion

The two observers disagree on the shape of the ball’s path.

Both agree that the motion obeys the law of gravity and Newton’s laws of motion.
Both agree on how long the ball was in the air.
Conclusion: There is no preferred frame of reference for describing the laws of
mechanics.

Section 39.1
Views of an Event

An event is some physical

phenomenon.
Assume the event occurs and is
observed by an observer at rest in an
inertial reference frame.
The event’s location and time can be
specified by the coordinates (x, y, z, t).
Consider two inertial frames, S and S’.
S’ moves with constant velocity along
the common x and x’ axes.
The velocity is measured relative to S.
Assume the origins of S and S’ coincide
at t = 0.

Section 39.1
Galilean Space-Time Transformation Equations
An observer in S describes the event with space-time coordinates (x, y, z, t).
An observer in S’ describes the same event with space-time coordinates (x’, y’,
z’, t’).
The relationship among the coordinates are:
 x’ = x – vt
 y’ = y
 z’ = z
 t’ = t

Section 39.1
Notes About Galilean Transformation Equations

The time is the same in both inertial frames.

 Within the framework of classical mechanics, all clocks run at the same rate.
 The time at which an event occurs for an observer in S is the same as the
time for the same event in S’.
 This turns out to be incorrect when v is comparable to the speed of light.

Section 39.1
Galilean Velocity Transformation Equation

Suppose that a particle moves through a displacement dx along the x axis in a

time dt.
The corresponding displacement dx’ is
dx ' dx
 v
dt ' dt
or u ' x  ux  v

 u is used for the particle velocity and v is used for the relative velocity
between the two frames.

Section 39.1
Galilean Transformation Equations – Final Notes

The x and x’ axes coincide, but their origins are different.

The y and y’ axes are parallel, but do not coincide.
 This is due to the displacement of the origin of S’ with respect to that of S.
 The same holds for z and z’ axes.
 These axes coincide only at one instant due to the time-varying
displacement of the origin of S’ with respect to that of S.
Time = 0 when the origins of the two coordinate system coincide.
If the S’ frame is moving in the positive x direction relative to S, the v is positive.
 Otherwise, it is negative

Section 39.1
Speed of Light

Galilean relativity does not apply to electricity, magnetism, or optics.

Maxwell showed the speed of light in free space is c = 3.00 x 108 m/s.
Physicists in the late 1800s thought light waves moved through a medium called
the ether.
 The speed of light would be c only in a special, absolute frame at rest with
respect to the ether.

Section 39.1
Effect of Ether Wind on Light

Assume v is the velocity of the ether

wind relative to the earth.
c is the speed of light relative to the
ether.
Various resultant velocities are shown.

Section 39.1
Ether Wind, cont.

The velocity of the ether wind is assumed to be the orbital velocity of the Earth.
All attempts to detect and establish the existence of the ether wind proved futile.
But Maxwell’s equations seem to imply that the speed of light always has a fixed
value in all inertial frames.
 This is a contradiction to what is expected based on the Galilean velocity
transformation equation.

Section 39.1
Michelson-Morley Experiment

First performed in 1881 by Michelson

Repeated under various conditions by Michelson and Morley
Designed to detect small changes in the speed of light
 By determining the velocity of the Earth relative to that of the hypothetical
ether

Section 39.2
Michelson-Morley Equipment

Used the Michelson interferometer

Arm 2 is aligned along the direction of
the Earth’s motion through space.
The interference pattern was observed
while the interferometer was rotated
through 90°.
The effect should have been to show
small, but measurable shifts in the
fringe pattern.

Section 39.2
Michelson-Morley Expected Results

The speed of light measured in the Earth frame should be c - v as the light
approaches mirror M2.
The speed of light measured in the Earth frame should be c + v as the light is
reflected from mirror M2.
The experiment was repeated at different times of the year when the ether wind
was expected to change direction and magnitude.

Section 39.2
Michelson-Morley Results

Measurements failed to show any change in the fringe pattern.

 No fringe shift of the magnitude required was ever observed.
 The negative results contradicted the ether hypothesis.
 They also showed that it was impossible to measure the absolute velocity of
the Earth with respect to the ether frame.
Light is now understood to be an electromagnetic wave, which requires no
medium for its propagation.
 The idea of an ether was discarded.

Section 39.2
Albert Einstein

1879 – 1955
1905
 Published four papers
 Most important were about the
special theory of relativity
1916
 General relativity
 1919 – confirmation
1920’s
 Didn’t accept quantum theory
1940’s or so
 Search for unified theory -
unsuccessful

Section 39.3
Einstein’s Principle of Relativity

Resolves the contradiction between Galilean relativity and the fact that the speed
of light is the same for all observers.
Postulates
 The principle of relativity: The laws of physics must be the same in all
inertial reference frames.
 The constancy of the speed of light: the speed of light in a vacuum has
the same value, c = 3.00 x 108 m/s, in all inertial frames, regardless of the
velocity of the observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light.

Section 39.3
The Principle of Relativity
This is a generalization of the principle of Galilean relativity, which refers only to
the laws of mechanics.
The results of any kind of experiment performed in a laboratory at rest must be
the same as when performed in a laboratory moving at a constant speed past the
first one.
No preferred inertial reference frame exists.
It is impossible to detect absolute motion.

Section 39.3
The Constancy of the Speed of Light

This is required by the first postulate.

Confirmed experimentally in many ways
Explains the null result of the Michelson-Morley experiment
Relative motion is unimportant when measuring the speed of light.
 We must alter our common-sense notions of space and time.

Section 39.3
Consequences of Special Relativity

Restricting the discussion to concepts of simultaneity, time intervals, and length

 These are quite different in relativistic mechanics from what they are in
Newtonian mechanics.
In relativistic mechanics
 There is no such thing as absolute length.
 There is no such thing as absolute time.
 Events at different locations that are observed to occur simultaneously in
one frame are not observed to be simultaneous in another frame moving
uniformly past the first.

Section 39.4
Simultaneity

In special relativity, Einstein abandoned the assumption of simultaneity.

Thought experiment to show this
 A boxcar moves with uniform velocity.
 Two lightning bolts strike the ends.
 The lightning bolts leave marks (A’ and B’) on the car and (A and B) on the
ground.
 Two observers are present: O’ in the boxcar and O on the ground

Section 39.4
Simultaneity – Thought Experiment Set-up

Observer O is moving with the boxcar midway between the points of lightning
strikes on the ground, A and B.
Observer O’ is midway between the points of lightning strikes on the boxcar, A’
and B’.

Section 39.4
Simultaneity – Thought Experiment Results

The light reaches observer O at the same time.

 He concludes the light has traveled at the same speed over equal distances.
 Observer O concludes the lightning bolts occurred simultaneously.

Section 39.4
Simultaneity – Thought Experiment Results, cont.
By the time the light has reached
observer O, observer O’ has moved.
The signal from B’ has already swept
past O’, but the signal from A’ has not
yet reached him.
 The two observers must find that
light travels at the same speed.
 Observer O’ concludes the
lightning struck the front of the
boxcar before it struck the back
(they were not simultaneous
events).

Section 39.4
Simultaneity – Thought Experiment, Summary
Two events that are simultaneous in one reference frame are in general not
simultaneous in a second reference frame moving relative to the first.
That is, simultaneity is not an absolute concept, but rather one that depends on
the state of motion of the observer.
 In the thought experiment, both observers are correct, because there is no
preferred inertial reference frame.

Section 39.4
Simultaneity, Transit Time

In this thought experiment, the disagreement depended upon the transit time of
light to the observers and doesn’t demonstrate the deeper meaning of relativity.
In high-speed situations, the simultaneity is relative even when transit time is
subtracted out.
 We will ignore transit time in all further discussions.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation

A mirror is fixed to the ceiling of a

vehicle.
The vehicle is moving to the right with
speed .v
An observer, O’, at rest in the frame
attached to the vehicle holds a
flashlight a distance d below the mirror.
The flashlight emits a pulse of light
directed at the mirror (event 1) and the
pulse arrives back after being reflected
(event 2).

Section 39.4
Time Dilation, Moving Observer

Observer O’ carries a clock.

She uses it to measure the time between the events (Δtp).
Model the pulse of light as a particle under constant speed.
 The observer sees the events to occur at the same place.
 Δtp = distance/speed = (2d)/c

Section 39.4
Time Dilation, Stationary Observer

Observer O is in a second frame at rest with respect to the ground.

He observes the mirror and O’ to move with speed v.
By the time the light from the flashlight reaches the mirror, the mirror has moved
to the right.
The light must travel farther with respect to O than with respect to O’.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation, Observations

Both observers must measure the speed of the light to be c.

The light travels farther for O.
The time interval, Δt, for O is longer than the time interval for O’, Δtp.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation, Time Comparisons

The time interval Δt is longer than the

time interval Δtp
t p
t   γ t p
2
v
1
c2
1
where γ 
v2
1 2
c
γ is always greater than unity

Section 39.4
Time Dilation, Summary

The time interval Δt between two events measured by an observer moving with
respect to a clock is longer than the time interval Δtp between the same two
events measured by an observer at rest with respect to the clock.
 This effect is known as time dilation.

Section 39.4
g Factor

Time dilation is not observed in our

everyday lives.
For slow speeds, the factor of g is so
small that no time dilation occurs.
As the speed approaches the speed of
light, g increases rapidly.

Section 39.4
g Factor Table

Section 39.4
Identifying Proper Time

The time interval Δtp is called the proper time interval.

 The proper time interval is the time interval between events as measured by
an observer who sees the events occur at the same point in space.
 You must be able to correctly identify the observer who measures the proper time
interval.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation – Generalization
If a clock is moving with respect to you, the time interval between ticks of the
moving clock is observed to be longer that the time interval between ticks of an
identical clock in your reference frame.
All physical processes are measured to slow down when these processes occur
in a frame moving with respect to the observer.
 These processes can be chemical and biological as well as physical.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation – Verification

Time dilation is a very real phenomenon that has been verified by various
experiments.
These experiments include:
 Airplane flights
 Muon decay
 Twin Paradox

Section 39.4
Airplanes and Time Dilation

In 1972 an experiment was reported that provided direct evidence of time

dilation.
Time intervals measured with four cesium clocks in jet flight were compared to
time intervals measured by Earth-based reference clocks.
The results were in good agreement with the predictions of the special theory of
relativity.

Section 39.4
Time Dilation Verification – Muon Decays

Muons are unstable particles that have

the same charge as an electron, but a
mass 207 times more than an electron.
Muons have a half-life of Δtp = 2.2 µs
when measured in a reference frame at
rest with respect to them (fig. a).
Relative to an observer on the Earth,
muons should have a lifetime of
g Δtp (fig. b)
A CERN experiment measured lifetimes
in agreement with the predictions of
relativity.

Section 39.4
The Twin Paradox – The Situation

A thought experiment involving a set of twins, Speedo and Goslo.

Speedo travels to Planet X, 20 light years from the Earth.
 His ship travels at 0.95c.
 After reaching Planet X, he immediately returns to the Earth at the same
speed.
When Speedo returns, he has aged 13 years, but Goslo has aged 42 years.

Section 39.4
The Twins’ Perspectives

Goslo’s perspective is that he was at rest while Speedo went on the journey.
Speedo thinks he was at rest and Goslo and the Earth raced away from him and
then headed back toward him.
The paradox – which twin actually ages more slowly?

Section 39.4
The Twin Paradox – The Resolution

Relativity applies to reference frames moving at uniform speeds.

The trip in this thought experiment is not symmetrical since Speedo must
experience a series of accelerations during the journey.
Therefore, Goslo can apply the time dilation formula with a proper time of 42
years.
 This gives a time for Speedo of 13 years and this agrees with the earlier
result.
There is no true paradox since Speedo is not in an inertial frame.

Section 39.4
Length Contraction

The measured distance between two points depends on the frame of reference of
the observer.
The proper length, Lp, of an object is the length of the object measured by
someone at rest relative to the object.
The length of an object measured in a reference frame that is moving with
respect to the object is always less than the proper length.
 This effect is known as length contraction.

Section 39.4
More About Proper Length

Very important to correctly identify the observer who measures proper length.
The proper length is always the length measured by the observer at rest with
respect to the points.
Often the proper time interval and the proper length are not measured by the
same observer.

Section 39.4
Length Contraction – Equation

LP v2
L  LP 1 2
γ c
The length when an object moves with
a speed v in a direction parallel to its
length is measured to be shorter than
its length measured by an observer at
rest with respect to the object.
Length contraction takes place only
along the direction of motion.

Section 39.4
Proper Length vs. Proper Time

The proper length and proper time interval are defined differently.
The proper length is measured by an observer for whom the end points of the
length remained fixed in space.
The proper time interval is measured by someone for whom the two events take
place at the same position in space.

Section 39.4
Space-Time Graphs

In a space-time graph, ct is the ordinate

and position x is the abscissa.
A path through space-time is called a
world-line.
World-lines for light are diagonal lines.
The example is the graph of the twin
paradox.
 All possible future events for Goslo
and Speedo lie above the x axis
and between the red-brown lines.
 Neither twin can travel faster than
the speed of light.

Section 39.4
Light Cones

If the space-time graph is rotated about the ct axis, the red-brown lines sweep
out a cone.
 The cone is called a light cone.
 It generalizes the space-time graph to two space dimensions.
All future events for an observer at the origin must line within the light cone.
Another rotation could be imagined that would generalize the light cone to three
space dimensions.
The requirements for four dimensions means the situation cannot be represented
in a two-dimensional drawing on paper.
 Three space dimensions and time

Section 39.4
Relativistic Doppler Effect

Another consequence of time dilation is the shift in frequency found for light
emitted by atoms in motion as opposed to light emitted by atoms at rest.
If a light source and an observer approach each other with a relative speed, v,
the frequency measured by the observer is
1 v c
ƒ'  ƒ
1 v c
f is the frequency of the source measured in the rest frame.
The shift depends only on the relative velocity, v, of the source and observer.
ƒ' > ƒ when the source and the observer approach each other
An example is the red shift of galaxies, showing most galaxies are moving away
from us.

Section 39.4
Lorentz Transformation Equations, Set-Up

Assume the events at points P and Q

are reported by two observers.
One observer is at rest in frame S.
The other observer is in frame S’
moving to the right with speed v.
The observer in frame S reports the
event with space-time coordinates of
(x, y, z, t).
The observer in frame S’ reports the
same event with space-time
coordinates of (x’, y’, z’, t’).

Section 39.5
Lorentz Transformation Equations, Set-Up, cont.

The Galilean transformation would predict that x = x’.

 The distance between the two points in space at which the events occur
does not depend on the motion of the observer.
The Galilean transformation is not valid when v approaches c.
 x = x’ is contradictory to length contraction.
The equations that are valid at all speeds are the Lorentz transformation
equations.
 Valid for speeds 0 < v < c

Section 39.5
Lorentz Transformations, Equations

To transform coordinates from S to S’ use

 v 
x '  γ  x  vt  y'  y z'  z t'  γ t  2 x 
 c 

These show that in relativity, space and time are not separate concepts but
rather closely interwoven with each other.
To transform coordinates from S’ to S use

 v 
x  γ  x '  vt '  y'  y z'  z t  γ  t '  2 x' 
 c 

Section 39.5
Lorentz Transformations, Pairs of Events

The Lorentz transformations can be written in a form suitable for describing pairs
of events.
For S to S’ For S’ to S
x '  γ  x  v t  x  γ  x '  v t ' 
 v   v 
t '  γ  t  2 x  t  γ  t '  2 x ' 
 c   c 

Section 39.5
Lorentz Transformations, Pairs of Events, cont.

In the preceding equations, observer O’ measures x’ = x’2 – x’1 and t’ = t’2 – t’1
Also, observer O measures x = x2 – x1 and t = t2 – t1
The y and z coordinates are unaffected by the motion along the x direction.

Section 39.5
Lorentz Velocity Transformation

The “event” is the motion of the object.

S’ is the frame moving at v relative to S.
In the S’ frame

dx ' u v
u'x   x
dt ' u v
1 x2
c
uy uz
uy 
'
and u'z 
 u v   uv
γ  1 x2  γ  1 z2 
 c   c 

Section 39.6
Lorentz Velocity Transformation, cont.

The term v does not appear in the u’y and u’z equations since the relative motion
is in the x direction.
When v is much smaller than c, the Lorentz velocity transformation reduces to
the Galilean velocity transformation equation.
If ux = c, u’x = c and the speed of light is shown to be independent of the relative
motion of the frame.

Section 39.6
Lorentz Velocity Transformation, final

To obtain ux in terms of u’x, use

u'x  v
ux 
u'xv
1 2
c

Section 39.6
Measurements Observers Do Not Agree On

Two observers O and O’ do not agree on:

 The time interval between events that take place in the same position in one
reference frame
 The distance between two points that remain fixed in one of their frames
 The velocity components of a moving particle
 Whether two events occurring at different locations in both frames are
simultaneous or not

Section 39.6
Measurements Observers Do Agree On

Two observers O and O’ can agree on:

 Their relative speed of motion v with respect to each other
 The speed c of any ray of light
 The simultaneity of two events which take place at the same position and
time in some frame

Section 39.6
Relativistic Linear Momentum
To account for conservation of momentum in all inertial frames, the definition
must be modified to satisfy these conditions:
 The linear momentum of an isolated particle must be conserved in all
collisions.
 The relativistic value calculated for the linear momentum p of a particle must
approach the classical value mu as u approaches zero.
mu
p  γmu
2
u
1
c2
 u is the velocity of the particle, m is its mass.

Section 39.7
Mass in Relativity

In older treatments of relativity, conservation of momentum was maintained by

using “relativistic mass”.
Today, mass is considered to be invariant.
 That means it is independent of speed.
The mass of an object in all frames is considered to be the mass as measured by
an observer at rest with respect to the object.

Section 39.7
Relativistic Form of Newton’s Laws
The relativistic force acting on a particle whose linear momentum is p is defined
as
dp
F
dt
This preserves classical mechanics in the limit of low velocities.
It is consistent with conservation of linear momentum for an isolated system both
relativistically and classically.
Looking at acceleration it is seen to be impossible to accelerate a particle from
rest to a speed u  c.

Section 39.7
Speed of Light, Notes

The speed of light is the speed limit of the universe.

It is the maximum speed possible for energy and information transfer.
Any object with mass must move at a lower speed.

Section 39.7
Relativistic Kinetic Energy

The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem can be applied to relativistic situations.

This becomes
mc 2
W K   mc 2  γmc 2  mc 2  γ  1 mc 2
u2
1 2
c

Section 39.8
Relativistic Energy

The definition of kinetic energy requires modification in relativistic mechanics.

E = gmc2 – mc2
 This matches the classical kinetic energy equation when u << c.
 The term mc2 is called the rest energy of the object and is independent of its
speed.
 The term gmc2 is the total energy, E, of the object and depends on its speed
and its rest energy.

Section 39.8
Relativistic Energy – Consequences

A particle has energy by virtue of its mass alone.

 A stationary particle with zero kinetic energy has an energy proportional to
its inertial mass.
 This is shown by E = K + mc2 = 0 + mc2 .
A small mass corresponds to an enormous amount of energy.

Section 39.8
Energy and Relativistic Momentum
It is useful to have an expression relating total energy, E, to the relativistic
momentum, p.
 E2 = p2c2 + (mc2)2
 When the particle is at rest, p = 0 and E = mc2
 Massless particles (m = 0) have E = pc
 The mass m of a particle is independent of its motion and so is the same
value in all reference frames.
 m is often called the invariant mass.

Section 39.8
Mass and Energy Units

This is also used to express masses in energy units.

 Mass of an electron = 9.11 x 10-31 kg = 0.511 MeV
 Conversion: 1 u = 929.494 MeV/c2

Section 39.8
Mass and Energy

The clearest experimental proof of the equivalence of mass and energy occurs in
nuclear and elementary particle interactions.
Conservation of energy must be modified by including rest energy as another
form of energy storage.
The conversion from mass to energy is important in atomic and nuclear
reactions.

Section 39.9
More About Mass

Mass has two seemingly different properties

 A gravitational attraction for other masses: Fg = mgg
 An inertial property that represents a resistance to acceleration: SF = mi a
That mg and mi were directly proportional was evidence for a connection between
them
Einstein’s view was that the dual behavior of mass was evidence for a very
intimate and basic connection between the two behaviors.

Section 39.10
Elevator Example, 1

The observer is at rest in a uniform

gravitational field, directed downward.
He is standing in an elevator on the
surface of a planet.
He feels pressed into the floor, due to
the gravitational force.
If he releases his briefcase, it will move
toward the floor with an acceleration of
g  gˆj

Section 39.10
Elevator Example, 2
Here the observer is accelerating
upward.
A force is producing an upward
acceleration of a = g.
The person feels pressed to the floor
with the same force as in the
gravitational field.
If he releases his drops his briefcase,
he observes it moving toward the floor
with a = g.

Section 39.10
Elevator Example, 3
In c, the elevator is accelerating
upward.
From the point of view of an observer in
an inertial frame outside of the elevator,
the light pulse travels in a straight line
while the elevator accelerates upward.
In d, the observer in the elevator sees
the light pulse bend toward the floor.
In either case, the beam of light is bent
by a gravitational field.

Section 39.10
Elevator Example, Conclusions

Einstein claimed that the two situations were equivalent.

No local experiment can distinguish between the two frames .
 One frame is an inertial frame in a gravitational field.
 The other frame is accelerating in a gravity-free space

Section 39.10
Einstein’s Conclusions, cont.

Einstein extended the idea further and proposed that no experiment, mechanical
or otherwise, could distinguish between the two cases.
He proposed that a beam of light should be bent downward by a gravitational
field.
 The bending would be small.
 A laser would fall less than 1 cm from the horizontal after traveling 6000 km.
Experiments have verified the effect.

Section 39.10
Postulates of General Relativity

All the laws of nature have the same form for observers in any frame of
reference, whether accelerated or not.
In the vicinity of any point, a gravitational field is equivalent to an accelerated
frame of reference in gravity-free space.
 This is the principle of equivalence.

Section 39.10
Implications of General Relativity

Time is altered by gravity.

 A clock in the presence of gravity runs slower than one where gravity is
negligible.
The frequencies of radiation emitted by atoms in a strong gravitational field are
shifted to lower frequencies.
 This has been detected in the spectral lines emitted by atoms in massive
stars.
A gravitational field may be “transformed away” at any point if we choose an
appropriate accelerated frame of reference – a freely falling frame.
Einstein specified a certain quantity, the curvature of time-space, that describes
the gravitational effect at every point.

Section 39.10
Curvature of Space-Time

The curvature of space-time completely replaces Newton’s gravitational theory.

There is no such thing as a gravitational force.
 According to Einstein
Instead, the presence of a mass causes a curvature of time-space in the vicinity
of the mass.
 This curvature dictates the path that all freely moving objects must follow.

Section 39.10
Effect of Curvature of Space-Time

Imagine two travelers moving on parallel paths a few meters apart on the surface
of the Earth, heading exactly northward.
As they approach the North Pole, their paths will be converging.
They will have moved toward each other as if there were an attractive force
between them.
It is the geometry of the curved surface that causes them to converge, rather
than an attractive force between them.

Section 39.10
Testing General Relativity

General relativity predicts that a light ray passing near the Sun should be
deflected in the curved space-time created by the Sun’s mass.
The prediction was confirmed by astronomers during a total solar eclipse.

Section 39.10
Einstein’s Cross

The four spots are images of the same

galaxy.
They have been bent around a massive
object located between the galaxy and
the Earth.
The massive object acts like a lens.

Section 39.10
Black Holes

If the concentration of mass becomes very great, a black hole may form.
In a black hole, the curvature of space-time is so great that, within a certain
distance from its center, all light and matter become trapped.

Section 39.10