Chapter 1 – The Composition

and Structure of the Atmosphere

 Terms and Definitions
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water
droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface
 Terms and Definitions
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water
droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface
• Weather – Short-term atmospheric phenomena
lasting from hours up to about a week (e.g.
thunderstorms, hurricanes, periods of high winds,
drizzle)
 Terms and Definitions
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water
droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface
• Weather – Short-term atmospheric phenomena
lasting from hours up to about a week (e.g.
thunderstorms, hurricanes, periods of high winds,
drizzle)
• Climate – Long-term atmospheric conditions lasting
from weeks to years (e.g. average yearly Lubbock
precipitation, global warming)
 Terms and Definitions
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water
droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface
• Weather – Short-term atmospheric phenomena
lasting from hours up to about a week (e.g.
thunderstorms, hurricanes, periods of high winds,
drizzle)
• Climate – Long-term atmospheric conditions lasting
from weeks to years (e.g. average yearly Lubbock
precipitation, global warming)
• Meteorology – The study of weather
 Terms and Definitions
• Atmosphere – The mixture of gases, water
droplets, and solid particles above the earth’s
surface
• Weather – Short-term atmospheric phenomena
lasting from hours up to about a week (e.g.
thunderstorms, hurricanes, periods of high winds,
drizzle)
• Climate – Long-term atmospheric conditions lasting
from weeks to years (e.g. average yearly Lubbock
precipitation, global warming)
• Meteorology – The study of weather
• Climatology – The study of climate
 Thickness of the Atmosphere
• How high is the atmosphere?
• No defined top
 Thickness of the Atmosphere
• How high is the atmosphere?
• No defined top
• 99.99997% of atmosphere is below 100 km (60 mi)
 Thickness of the Atmosphere
• How high is the atmosphere?
• No defined top
• 99.99997% of atmosphere is below 100 km (60 mi)
• Weather occurs in lowest 11 km (7 mi)
 Thickness of the Atmosphere
• How high is the atmosphere?
• No defined top
• 99.99997% of atmosphere is below 100 km (60 mi)
• Weather occurs in lowest 11 km (7 mi)
• Atmospheric depth is very thin relative to earth’s
horizontal distances
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Earth’s early atmosphere contained mostly
hydrogen and helium
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Earth’s early atmosphere contained mostly
hydrogen and helium
• Two hypotheses exist that explain the dispersion
of this early atmosphere
1) The gases escaped to space by overcoming gravity
with large enough escape velocities
2) Collisions between earth and other large bodies
launched the early atmosphere to space
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Earth’s early atmosphere contained mostly
hydrogen and helium
• Two hypotheses exist that explain the dispersion
of this early atmosphere
1) The gases escaped to space by overcoming gravity
with large enough escape velocities
2) Collisions between earth and other large bodies
launched the early atmosphere to space
• A modern atmosphere began to form through
outgassing by volcanic eruptions, and possibly
through collisions of comets with earth (Both
supplying mostly carbon dioxide and water vapor)
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated
to form oceans
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated
to form oceans
• Carbon dioxide lost to oceans
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated
to form oceans
• Carbon dioxide lost to oceans
• Oxygen released first through primitive
oceanic bacteria, later through plants
(protected by ozone layer)
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated
to form oceans
• Carbon dioxide lost to oceans
• Oxygen released first through primitive
oceanic bacteria, later through plants
(protected by ozone layer)
• Plants further reduced carbon dioxide
 The Evolution of the Atmosphere
• Water vapor condensed and precipitated
to form oceans
• Carbon dioxide lost to oceans
• Oxygen released first through primitive
oceanic bacteria, later through plants
(protected by ozone layer)
• Plants further reduced carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen slowly increased over long
periods of time through outgassing
 Composition of the Modern
Atmosphere
• The atmosphere today contains:
• Gases (permanent and variable)
• Water droplets (clouds and precipitation)
• Microscopic solid particles (aerosols)
 The Permanent Gases
• Permanent gases form a constant proportion of
the atmosphere, and have long residence times
(thousands to millions of years)
 The Variable Gases
• Variable gases vary in atmospheric
concentration in both time and space
 Water Vapor
• Water vapor (H2O) – Extremely important variable
gas with short residence time (~10 days)
 Water Vapor
• Water vapor (H2O) – Extremely important variable
gas with short residence time (~10 days)
• Water vapor is the invisible gaseous phase of
water (you can only see liquid water droplets!)
 Water Vapor
• Water vapor (H2O) – Extremely important variable
gas with short residence time (~10 days)
• Water vapor is the invisible gaseous phase of
water (you can only see liquid water droplets!)
• Atmospheric concentration highest near ocean
surface in tropics (~4%)
 Water Vapor
• Water vapor (H2O) – Extremely important variable
gas with short residence time (~10 days)
• Water vapor is the invisible gaseous phase of
water (you can only see liquid water droplets!)
• Atmospheric concentration highest near ocean
surface in tropics (~4%)
• Atmospheric concentration lowest in deserts and at
high altitudes (near 0%)
The Hydrologic Cycle
 Water Vapor Satellite Imagery
• Satellite imagery reveals variable nature of water vapor
concentration
• Water vapor satellite imagery also reveals moist and dry
regions of the atmosphere (visible imagery does not)

Water vapor imagery Visible imagery

 Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) – An important greenhouse
gas with concentration 0.0386% (386 ppm) and
residence time of 150 years
 Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) – An important greenhouse
gas with concentration 0.0386% (386 ppm) and
residence time of 150 years

• Sources - 1) Plant and animal respiration

2) Volcanoes
3) Organic decay
4) Combustion
 Carbon Dioxide
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) – An important greenhouse
gas with concentration 0.0386% (386 ppm) and
residence time of 150 years

• Sources - 1) Plant and animal respiration

2) Volcanoes
3) Organic decay
4) Combustion

• Sinks - 1) Photosynthesis (plants)

2) The oceans
 Carbon Dioxide
• Seasonal oscillation in concentration
• Long term increase in concentration (due to
anthropogenic combustion and deforestation)

Mauna Loa Observatory (~11,000 ft. in Hawaii)

 Ozone
• Ozone (O3) – A beneficial and harmful
variable gas
 Ozone
• Ozone (O3) – A beneficial and harmful
variable gas
• O3 concentrations in the stratosphere (~10-30 miles
above sea level) are relatively high (15 ppm), occurs
from natural chemical reactions
Absorbs UV radiation!!
 Ozone
• Ozone (O3) – A beneficial and harmful
variable gas
• O3 concentrations in the stratosphere (~10-30 miles
above sea level) are relatively high (15 ppm), occurs
from natural chemical reactions
Absorbs UV radiation!!

• O3 concentration near earth’s surface is usually near

zero, but can increase to 0.15 ppm through chemical
reactions in polluted air
Irritant!!
Stratospheric Ozone Creation and
Destruction
• Natural ozone cycle
O2 + uv --> O + O
O2 + O --> O3
O3 + uv --> O + O2
 Stratospheric Ozone Creation and
Destruction
• Natural ozone cycle
O2 + uv --> O + O
O2 + O --> O3
O3 + uv --> O + O2

• After introduction of CFCs

CFC + uv --> Cl + CFCbyproduct
Cl + O3 --> ClO + O2
O + ClO --> Cl + O2
Global CFCs

A global success story!

 Methane
• Methane (CH4) – A variable gas with residence
time ~10 years that has high potential for
greenhouse warming
 Methane
• Methane (CH4) – A variable gas with residence
time ~10 years that has high potential for
greenhouse warming

• Sources - 1) Rice cultivation, wetlands

2) Mining
3) Biomass burning
4) Fossil fuel extraction
5) Animal digestion
 Methane
• Methane (CH4) – A variable gas with residence
time ~10 years that has high potential for
greenhouse warming

• Sources - 1) Rice cultivation, wetlands

2) Mining
3) Biomass burning
4) Fossil fuel extraction
5) Animal digestion

• Sinks - 1) Atmospheric chemical reactions

Methane
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
• Typical diameter = 10 microns (0.00001
meter)
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
• Typical diameter = 10 microns (0.00001
meter)
• Typical life span = days to weeks
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
• Typical diameter = 10 microns (0.00001
meter)
• Typical life span = days to weeks
• Mostly from natural sources
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
• Typical diameter = 10 microns (0.00001
meter)
• Typical life span = days to weeks
• Mostly from natural sources
• Primary sinks include dry and wet deposition
 Aerosols
• Aerosols – Small solid particles (e.g. dust,
smoke, sea spray, volcanic ash)
• Typical concentration = 17,000/in3
• Typical diameter = 10 microns (0.00001
meter)
• Typical life span = days to weeks
• Mostly from natural sources
• Primary sinks include dry and wet deposition
• Act as cloud condensation nuclei (without
aerosols, there would never be clouds)
 Aerosols

Lubbock Dust Storm

 Aerosols

Haboob in Phoenix, AZ

Forest fire smoke in CA Eruption of Mount St. Helens

 Vertical Structure of the
Atmosphere
• There are various ways to characterize the
vertical nature of the atmosphere
• Density profile
• Temperature profile (Most common)
• Chemical profile
• Electrical profile
 The Chemical Profile
• Homosphere – The atmosphere below
80km (~50miles)
• Permanent gases are in constant concentration
• Generally “atmosphere” refers to the homosphere
 The Chemical Profile
• Homosphere – The atmosphere below
80km (~50miles)
• Permanent gases are in constant concentration
• Generally “atmosphere” refers to the homosphere

• Heterosphere – Above the homosphere

• Lighter gases dominate (helium, hydrogen)
• No permanent gases
 The Density Profile
• Density is defined as the amount of
mass per unit volume

Density of various materials

1) Water 1000 kg/m3
2) Steel 7800 kg/m3
3) Air (at sea level) 1.2 kg/m3
 The Density Profile

• The atmosphere is Top of

atmosphere
compressible

• Density decreases
with height

Sea level
 Atmospheric Pressure
• Pressure = Force per
unit area

• Pressure in a free fluid is

related to the weight of
fluid above

• For example, the

pressure on your ears
increases at the same
rate as you dive deeper
in a pool
 Atmospheric Pressure
• How does pressure
decrease with height Top of
atmosphere
in the atmosphere?

Sea level
 Atmospheric Pressure
• How does pressure
decrease with height Top of
atmosphere
in the atmosphere?

• Pressure decreases
with height fastest
near the surface, less
so aloft
Sea level
Atmospheric Pressure Profile
 Atmospheric Pressure
• How much pressure (psi) is pushing on you right
now?
 Atmospheric Pressure
• How much pressure (psi) is pushing on you right
now?

• Average sea-level pressure = 14.7 psi

= 1013.25 mb
= 101325 Pa
= 29.92 in Hg
= 1 atmosphere

Record high sea-level pressure = 1083.8 mb (Siberia, 1968)

Record low sea-level pressure = 870 mb (Typhoon Tip near Guam, 1979)
 Atmospheric Pressure
• What about the upside-down cup of
water…
 Atmospheric Pressure
• What about the upside-down cup of
water…

Other interesting realizations of atmospheric pressure

Suction cups
Lungs
Vacuum cleaner

1 more pressure experiment to come…

Layering the Atmosphere Based on
Temperature
• 4 layers identified by similar temperature rates of
change with height
A Quick Note on Temperature…
• Temperature is expressed in Fahrenheit (oF),
Celsius (oC), or Kelvin (K)

Conversions
K = oC +273.16

oF = 9/5 * oC + 32
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
• Practically all weather occurs in the
troposphere
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
• Practically all weather occurs in the
troposphere
• Temperature generally decreases with
height (environmental lapse rate, typical
value = 6.5oC/km) – Why??
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
• Practically all weather occurs in the
troposphere
• Temperature generally decreases with
height (environmental lapse rate, typical
value = 6.5oC/km) – Why??
• Top of troposphere is called the
tropopause
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Located at about 0-11km (0-7.0 mi)
• Practically all weather occurs in the
troposphere
• Temperature generally decreases with
height (environmental lapse rate, typical
value = 6.5oC/km) – Why??
• Top of troposphere is called the
tropopause
• Contains 80% of atmospheric mass
 Troposphere
• Troposphere – Lowest atmospheric layer
• Depth varies with latitude and season
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Only weather in stratosphere are
overshooting thunderstorm tops
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height
(inversion) – due to O3 absorbtion of UV
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height
(inversion) – due to O3 absorbtion of UV
• Located from about 11-50 km
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height
(inversion) – due to O3 absorbtion of UV
• Located from about 11-50 km
• Top of stratosphere is called the
stratopause
 Stratosphere
• Stratosphere – The atmospheric layer
above the troposphere (2nd layer up)
• Ozone layer is located in stratosphere
• Temperature increases with height
(inversion) – due to O3 absorbtion of UV
• Located from about 11-50 km
• Top of stratosphere is called the
stratopause
• Contains about 19.9% of atmospheric mass
Mesosphere and Thermosphere
• The mesosphere (3rd layer up) and the
thermosphere (4th layer up) contain only
0.1% of atmospheric mass
Mesosphere and Thermosphere
• The mesosphere (3rd layer up) and the
thermosphere (4th layer up) contain only
0.1% of atmospheric mass
• Mesosphere located from about 50-80km
• Temperature decreases with height in the
mesosphere
• Thermosphere located above 80km
• Temperature increases with height in the
thermosphere
 Characterizing the Atmosphere
Based on Electrical Properties
• The ionosphere is an atmospheric layer
located from the upper mesosphere into
the thermosphere
 Characterizing the Atmosphere
Based on Electrical Properties
• The ionosphere is an atmospheric layer
located from the upper mesosphere into
the thermosphere
• The ionosphere contains electrically charged
particles called ions due to UV radiation
 Characterizing the Atmosphere
Based on Electrical Properties
• The ionosphere is an atmospheric layer
located from the upper mesosphere into
the thermosphere
• The ionosphere contains electrically charged
particles called ions due to UV radiation
• The ionosphere affects AM radio waves, absorbing
them in the day and reflecting them at night
 Characterizing the Atmosphere
Based on Electrical Properties
• The ionosphere is an atmospheric layer
located from the upper mesosphere into
the thermosphere
• The ionosphere contains electrically charged
particles called ions due to UV radiation
• The ionosphere affects AM radio waves, absorbing
them in the day and reflecting them at night
• The ionosphere creates the northern lights (aurora
borealis) and the southern lights (aurora
australis) through interactions between the sun’s
rays and earth’s magnetic field
The Ionosphere
The Ionosphere

Photo from climate.gi.alaska.edu/Curtis

The Northern Lights