Chapter 1: Intro To Statistics
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PohuyistChapter 1: Intro To Statistics
Uploaded by
PohuyistChapter 1: Intro to Statistics
Things you should know
• Stay up to date on your reading/assignments
– Check the syllabus for due dates– some classes
have multiple HWs
• The course starts easy and gets harder as we
go– topics build on previous lessons
• A very simple calculator will make your life
easier
Why should I take statistics?
• It’s required
• Sets you up for higher-level classes where you
will be evaluating and conducting research
• Allows you to
– Summarize data
– Organize data
– Make predictions
– Interpret research findings
Collecting Data: Why and How?
• Why: We want to find out something about a
population
– Population: all of the people we want to know
about
Collecting Data: Why and How?
• Why: We want to find out something about a
population
– Population: all of the people we want to know
about
• How: We select (“recruit”) an appropriate
sample, [do something], and then apply what
we learned to the population
– Sample: a group of people selected to study
Parameters and Statistics
• Parameter: a numerical description of a
population
• Statistic: a numerical description of a sample
Types of Statistical Approaches
• Descriptive statistics
– Summarize, organize, simplify data
• Graphs, tables, means, frequencies,
percentages
Types of Statistical Approaches
• Descriptive statistics
– Summarize, organize, simplify data
• Graphs, tables, means, frequencies,
percentages
• Inferential statistics
– Using information from samples to make
judgments about populations
Types of Statistical Approaches
• Sampling error
– Difference between population parameter and
sample statistic
– Samples will never be perfect, but large errors will
cause problems
Variables
• A variable is a characteristic or measurement
that can be determined for each member of a
population.
• Its value can change between people
• Usually notated by capital letters such as X
and Y
Types of Variables
• Qualitative vs quantitative
– Qualitative variables: categories; no numerical
logic
– Quantitative variables: represented by numbers
Types of Variables
• Qualitative vs quantitative
– Qualitative variables: categories; no numerical
logic
– Quantitative variables: represented by numbers
• Discrete vs continuous (Quantitative)
– Discrete variables: separate categories with no
values between them
– Continuous variables: infinite number of values
arranged on a spectrum
Data
• Data (singular: datum) are the actual values of
variables
• A group of these values comprises a data set
(e.g. a list of ages of students in a classroom)
Scales of Measurement
• Nominal: only the name is meaningful
– E.g. favorite color
– No numerical comparisons can be made, only
summary figures
Scales of Measurement
• Nominal: only the name is meaningful
• Ordinal: ranks between categories are
meaningful
– E.g. positions in a race (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
– Can give a direction, but not a magnitude
Scales of Measurement
• Nominal: only the name is meaningful
• Ordinal: ranks between categories are
meaningful
• Interval: distance between units is meaningful
and consistent
– E.g. time of day (12hr clock); temperature in
Fahrenheit or Celsius
– Can give a magnitude of difference
Scales of Measurement
• Nominal: only the name is meaningful
• Ordinal: ranks between categories are
meaningful
• Interval: distance between units is meaningful
and consistent
• Ratio: distance from zero is meaningful; zero is
absolute
– E.g. height in inches or centimeters; age in years
– SPSS calls ratio + interval “scale”
Example
• What is your current age? (Check one line only.)
__Less than 18
__18 to 29
__30 to 39
__40 to 49
__50 or older
Example
I will have a better job and easier
life than my parents.
I feel this way….
Never Sometimes Always
1 2 3 4 5
Measuring Cause and Effect
• Independent variable: controlled by the
researcher
– The cause of some change
• Dependent variable: outcome that is
measured
– Influenced by the independent variable
Order of Operations
• Parentheses
• Exponents
• Multiplication/Division
• Addition/Subtraction
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
Order of Operations
• (10+2)*3 + 5 = ?
•5 + 2 * 9 = ?
• 16 - 4 ÷ 4 = ?
• (1+1) * 2 = ?
2
Order of Operations
• (10+2)*3 + 5 = 41
• 5 + 2 * 9 = 23
• 16 - 4 ÷ 4 = 3
• (1+1) * 2 = 8
2
Statistical notation
• X - stands for a variable
• Y - stands for a second variable
• N - number in a population
• n – number in a sample
• ∑ (Greek letter sigma) -summation sign: add
the numbers following the summation sign
Example 1
X Y
8 1
3 4
2 3
∑X =
∑Y =
∑XY =
Example 2
X X2
2 4
3 9
5 25
∑X =
∑X2 =
(∑X)2 =
Example 2
X X2
2 4
3 9
5 25
∑X = 2+ 3 + 5 = 10
∑X2 = 4 + 9 + 25
(∑X)2 = 10*10 = 100
Example 3
X (X-1) (X-1)2
3
7
1
4
∑X =
∑(X-1) =
∑(X-1)2 =
(∑X)2 =
Real and Apparent Limits
• With a continuous variable, identical
measurements are rare – if you don’t get
much variability you should suspect that your
measurement procedure is crude or your
variable isn’t really continuous.
Real and Apparent Limits
• With a continuous variable, identical
measurements are rare – if you don’t get
much variability you should suspect that your
measurement procedure is crude or your
variable isn’t really continuous.
• When measuring a continuous variable, each
measurement category is actually an interval
that must be defined by boundaries (e.g., 64”
is really 63.5” to 64.5”)
Real and Apparent Limits
• With a continuous variable, identical
measurements are rare – if you don’t get
much variability you should suspect that your
measurement procedure is crude or your
variable isn’t really continuous.
• When measuring a continuous variable, each
measurement category is actually an interval
that must be defined by boundaries (e.g., 64”
is really 63.5” to 64.5”)
• These boundaries are called Real Limits
