The Structure and
Function of
Macromolecules
AP Biology Chapter 5
Macromolecules
Macromolecules are giant molecules .
Four main classes of macromolecules are:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids
Polymers
A polymer is a long molecule made of many similar or
identical monomers (small molecules).
Polymers are linked by covalent bonds.
The covalent bonds occur through condensation
reactions called dehydration.
The polymers are disassembled by a hydrolysis
reaction.
Dehydration Reactions
Condensation involves a dehydration synthesis
because a water is removed (dehydration) and a bond is
made (synthesis).
When two monomers join, a hydroxyl (OH) group is
removed from one monomer and a hydrogen (H) is
removed from the other.
This produces the water given off during a
condensation reaction.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
function:
in short-term energy storage
as intermediate-term energy storage (starch for
plants and glycogen for animals);
as structural components in cells (cellulose in the
cell walls of plants and many protists), and chitin in
the exoskeleton of insects and other arthropods.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides are single (mono=one) sugars.
Sugars are structurally the simplest carbohydrates.
They are the structural unit which makes up the
other types of carbohydrates.
Important monosaccharides include ribose, glucose,
and fructose.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides are formed when two
monosaccharides are chemically bonded together.
Sucrose, a common plant disaccharide is composed
of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose.
Lactose, milk sugar, is a disaccharide composed of
glucose and the monosaccharide galactose.
Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of
individual monosaccharide units.
A common plant polysaccharide is starch, which is
made up of many glucoses.
Glycogen is an animal storage product that
accumulates in the vertebrate liver.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in plant cell
walls. Cellulose forms the fibrous part of the plant
cell wall.
Amylopectin
Lipids
Lipids are involved mainly with long-term energy
storage.
They are generally insoluble in polar substances such as
water.
Secondary functions of lipids are as structural
components and as hormones that play roles in
communications within and between cells.
Lipids are composed of three fatty acids (usually)
covalently bonded to a 3-carbon glycerol.
Fatty Acids
Fatty acids can be
1. saturated (meaning they have as many
hydrogens bonded to their carbons as
possible) or
2. unsaturated (with one or more double bonds
connecting their carbons, hence fewer
hydrogens).
Fats
A fat is solid at room temperature, while an
oil is a liquid under the same conditions.
The fatty acids in oils are mostly unsaturated,
while those in fats are mostly saturated.
Fats and Oils
Fats and oils function in energy storage.
Animals convert excess sugars into fats.
Most plants store excess sugars as starch,
although some seeds and fruits have energy
stored as oils
Fats
Another use of fats is as insulators and
cushions.
The human body naturally accumulates some
fats in the "posterior" area.
Subdermal ("under the skin") fat plays a role
in insulation.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids and glycolipids are important
structural components of cell membranes.
Waxes
Waxes are an important structural component
for many organisms, such as the cuticle, a
waxy layer covering the leaves and stems of
many land plants; and protective coverings on
skin and fur of animals.
Cholesterol and Steroids
Cholesterol and steroids: Most mention of
these two in the news is usually negative.
Cholesterol has many biological uses, such as
its occurrence in the cell membranes, and its
role in forming the sheath of some neurons.
Proteins
Proteins are very important as control and
structural elements.
Control functions of proteins are carried out
by enzymes and proteinaceous hormones.
Enzymes
Enzymes are chemicals that act as organic
catalysts (a catalyst is a chemical that
promotes but is not changed by a chemical
reaction).
Structural Proteins
Structural proteins
function in the cell
membrane, muscle tissue,
etc.
Proteins
The building block of any protein is the
amino acid, which has an amino end (NH2)
and a carboxyl end (COOH).
The R indicates the variable component of
each amino acid.
Basic Amino Acid
Amino Acids
Evolutionary Significance
All living things use various combinations of
the same twenty amino acids. A very powerful
bit of evidence for the phylogenetic
connection of all living things.
Peptide Bond
Amino acids are linked together by joining
the amino end of one molecule to the carboxyl
end of another. Removal of water allows
formation of a type of covalent bond known as
a peptide bond.
Primary Structure
Amino acids are linked together into a
polypeptide, the primary structure is the
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide.
Secondary Structure
The secondary structure is the tendency of the
polypeptide to coil or pleat due to H-bonding
between R-groups.
Tertiary Structure
The tertiary structure is controlled by bonding
(or in some cases repulsion) between R-
groups.
The protein tends to fold upon itself.
Quaternary Structure
Many proteins, such as hemoglobin, are
formed from one or more polypeptides. Such
structure is termed quaternary structure.
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are polymers composed of
units known as nucleotides.
The main functions of nucleotides are
information storage (DNA), protein synthesis
(RNA), and energy transfers (ATP and NAD).
Nucleic Acids Cont’d
Nucleotides consist of a sugar, a nitrogenous base,
and a phosphate. The sugars are either ribose or
deoxyribose.
There are five nitrogenous bases. Purines (Adenine
and Guanine) are double-ring structures, while
pyrimidines (Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil) are
single-ringed.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (better known as
DNA) is the physical carrier of inheritance for
99% of living organisms. The bases in DNA
are C, G, A and T.
RNA
RNA functions in protein synthesis.
There are three types of RNA, each is involved in protein
synthesis.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the blueprint for construction of
a protein.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the construction site where the
protein is made.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) is the truck delivering the proper
amino acid to the site at the right time.
