ETSU Modern Algebra Club

Robert “Dr. Bob” Gardner, Fall 2019 (Revised and Corrected Version)
 The Textbook
One of the core courses in our undergraduate math program
(and in anyone’s undergraduate math program) is:
Introduction to Modern Algebra (MATH 4127/5127)

In the third week of class (in Section I.4 of Fraleigh), you will
see the definition of a “group.”
Groups
 The Definition
Definition. A group 𝐺,∗ is a set 𝐺 and a binary operation
on 𝐺 such that 𝐺 is closed under ∗ and

G1: For all 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐺, ∗ is associative :

𝑎∗𝑏 ∗𝑐 =𝑎∗ 𝑏∗𝑐 .

G2: There is 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 called the identity such that for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 :

𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥.

G3: For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺, there is an inverse 𝑎′ ∈ 𝐺 such that:

𝑎 ∗ 𝑎′ = 𝑎′ ∗ 𝑎 = 𝑒.
[Fraleigh, Definition 4.1]
 Familiar Groups, Examples 1
• The integers under addition, ℤ, + .
• The rationals under addition, ℚ , + .
• The real numbers under addition, ℝ , + .
• The complex numbers under addition, ℂ , + .
• The integers modulo n under addition,
ℤ𝑛 , + .
In each case, associativity is clear, the identity is 0,
and the inverse of 𝑥 is −𝑥 (in ℤ𝑛 , −𝑥 = 𝑛 − 𝑥).
 Familiar Groups, Examples 2
• The nonzero rationals under
multiplication, ℚ∗ ,× .
• The nonzero real numbers under
multiplication, ℝ∗ ,× .
• The nonzero complex numbers under
multiplication, ℂ∗ ,× .
In each case, associativity is clear, the identity is 1,
and the inverse of 𝑥 is 1/𝑥.
 Familiar Group, Example 3
In each of the examples above, the binary operations
(+ or ×) are commutative (that is, 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 + 𝑎
and 𝑎 × 𝑏 = 𝑏 × 𝑎). A group in which the binary
operation is commutative is called an abelian group.

An example of a non-abelian group is the group of

all 𝒏 × 𝒏 invertible matrices under matrix
multiplication:
𝑎1,1 ⋯ 𝑎1,𝑛
𝑀𝑛 = 𝐴 = ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 𝑎𝑖,𝑗 ∈ 𝑅, det 𝐴 ≠ 0 .
𝑎𝑛,1 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛,𝑛
 A Strange Example
In the above examples, associativity is “clear.” In fact, it is
rather rare to encounter a binary operation that is not
associative. One such example, which you see in Linear
Algebra and Calculus 3 is the cross product of vectors in ℝ3 .
It is not the case (in general) that
𝑢 × 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑤 = 𝑢 × 𝑣Ԧ × 𝑤.

For example, 𝑖Ƹ × 𝑖Ƹ × 𝑗Ƹ = 𝑖Ƹ × 𝑘෠ = −𝑗Ƹ but

𝑖Ƹ × 𝑖Ƹ × 𝑗Ƹ = 0 × 𝑗Ƹ = 0.

So we cannot form a group using vectors and the

cross product!
Symmetry
Groups
 Geometry and Isometries
Each of the above examples of groups are
“algebraic.” We now introduce groups based on
geometric properties.
Definition. An isometry of n-dimensional space ℝ𝑛
is a function from ℝ𝑛 onto ℝ𝑛 that preserves
distance. [Gallian, page 461]
More precisely, 𝜋 is an isometry from ℝ𝑛 to ℝ𝑛 if
for all 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ𝑛 we have
𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑑 𝜋 𝑥 , 𝜋 𝑦
where 𝑑 is a metric on ℝ𝑛 .
 Symmetry Groups

𝑛
Definition. Let 𝐹 be a set of points in ℝ .
𝑛
The symmetry group of 𝐹 in ℝ is the set of
all isometries of ℝ𝑛 that carry 𝐹 onto itself.
The group operation is function composition.
[Gallian, page 461]
 Symmetry Group Example 1a
Example. Consider the line segment I in ℝ from
𝑎 = 0 to 𝑏 = 1. There are two isometries which
map I onto itself: 𝑓0 𝑥 = 𝑥 and 𝑓1 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥.
0 1 0 1

𝑓0 𝑓1

0 1 0 1

The “multiplication table” ° 𝑓0 𝑓1

for the symmetry group 𝑓0 𝑓0 𝑓1
with elements 𝑓0 and 𝑓1 is: 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓0
 Symmetry Group Example 1b
Example. Consider the line segment I in ℝ2 from 𝑎 = 0
to 𝑏 = 1. There are four isometries which map I onto
itself:

1. 𝑓0 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑥, 𝑦), the identity,

2. 𝑓1 𝑥, 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥, 𝑦), reflection about the line 𝑥 =
1/2,
3. 𝑓2 𝑥, 𝑦 = (𝑥, −𝑦), reflection about the line 𝑦 = 0,
and
4. 𝑓3 𝑥, 𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥, −𝑦), a combination of 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 .
Symmetry Group Example 1b (cont.)
y y
𝑓1320
Reflection
Identityabout
x 𝑥 = 1/2
𝑥𝑦== 1/2
0𝑦=0
and x

The multiplication °𝑓 𝑓0
𝑓0
𝑓1
𝑓1
𝑓2
𝑓2
𝑓3
𝑓3
0
table for this group is 𝑓1 𝑓1 𝑓0 𝑓3 𝑓2
given here. The group 𝑓2 𝑓2 𝑓3 𝑓0 𝑓1

is denoted 𝐷2 , ° . 𝑓3 𝑓3 𝑓2 𝑓1 𝑓0
 Symmetry Group Example 2
1 Permutations
1 2 3
𝜌0 =
1 2 3
1 2 3
𝜌1 =
2 3 1
3 2
1 2 3
𝜌2 =
3 1 2
Symmetry Group Example 2 (cont.)
1 Permutations
1 2 3
𝜇1 =
1 3 2
1 2 3
𝜇2 =
3 2 1
3 2
1 2 3
𝜇3 =
2 1 3
Symmetry Group Example 2 (cont.)
1 Permutations
1 2 3
𝜇1 =
1 3 2

3 2

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝜌1 ∗ 𝜇1 = = = 𝜇3
2 3 1 1 3 2 2 1 3
Symmetry Group Example 2 (cont.)
1 Permutations
1 2 3
𝜌1 =
2 3 1

3 2

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝜇1 ∗ 𝜌1 = = = 𝜇2
1 3 2 2 3 1 3 2 1
Symmetry Group Example 2 (cont.)
We find that the multiplication table for the group
of symmetries of an equilateral triangle is:
∗ 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3
𝜌0 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3
𝜌1 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜇3 𝜇1 𝜇2
𝜌2 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜇2 𝜇3 𝜇1
𝜇1 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2
𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇3 𝜇1 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜌1
𝜇3 𝜇3 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌0

This group of symmetries is the dihedral group 𝐷3 .

Notice that it contains a subgroup or order 3.
 Dihedral Groups
The symmetries of a regular 𝑛-gon form the dihedral
group, 𝐷𝑛 , ° , which consists of 2𝑛 permutations.

These groups are generated by the two fundamental

permutations: rotations and reflections.
 Cyclic Groups
If we consider the symmetries of a regular 𝑛-gon which
only consist of the rotations (and not the reflections) then
we get a subgroup of the dihedral group 𝐷𝑛 which consists
of the 𝑛 rotational permutations.
This group of 𝑛 rotational permutations forms the cyclic
group of order 𝑛. The cyclic group of order 𝑛 is the same as
(i.e., “isomorphic to”) the integers modulo 𝑛, ℤ𝑛 , + .

Since, for each 𝑛, the cyclic group of order 𝑛 is a subgroup

of the dihedral group of order 2𝑛, we often drop the binary
operation and write this as: ℤ𝑛 < 𝐷𝑛 .
 Cyclic Groups Example
Permutations
1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌0 =
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌1 =
6 3 2 3 4 5 6 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌2 =
3 4 5 6 1 2
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌3 =
5 4 4 5 6 1 2 3
1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌4 =
This group of 6 permutations 5 6 1 2 3 4
is isomorphic to the group 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝜌5 =
ℤ6 , + . 6 1 2 3 4 5
 Generators of a Group
The cyclic group ℤ𝑛 can be “generated” by the elementary
rotation 𝜌1 . That is, each element of ℤ𝑛 is a power of 𝜌1 :
𝜌2 = 𝜌1 ∗ 𝜌1 , 𝜌3 = 𝜌1 ∗ 𝜌1 ∗ 𝜌1 , etc. In fact, the formal
definition of a cyclic group is a group which is generated
by a single element.

The dihedral group 𝐷𝑛 can be generated by two

symmetries: a rotation and a reflection. This is the reason
these groups are called dihedral groups.
 Finite Symmetry Groups
Definition. A group 𝐺,∗ is finite if the set 𝐺 has a finite
number of elements: 𝐺 < ∞.

Theorem. The only finite symmetry groups of a set of

points in ℝ2 (that is, the only “plane symmetry groups” or
“groups of isometries of the plane”) are the groups ℤ𝑛 and
𝐷𝑛 for some 𝑛. These groups are sometimes called rosette
groups. [Fraleigh, page 115; Gallian, page 463]
We now explore infinite plane symmetry groups. This topic
is covered (briefly) in Fraleigh in Section II.12 (“Plane
Isometries”) and in some detail in Gallian’s Chapter 28
(“Frieze Groups and Crystallographic Groups”).
Plane Isometries
 Four Plane Isometries
To explore the infinite plane symmetry groups, we only
need to look at four types of isometries. Let 𝐹 be a set
of points in ℝ2 .
Translation: A translation 𝜏 of 𝐹 is a rigid movement
of 𝐹 in some direction, say the direction given by
vector 𝑣Ԧ = 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 . The image of 𝐹 is then:
𝜏 𝐹 = (𝑥 + 𝑣1 , 𝑦 + 𝑣2 ) (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐹 .
𝜏(𝐹)

𝐹 𝑣Ԧ
 Four Plane Isometries (cont.)
Rotation: A rotation 𝜌 of 𝐹 about a point 𝑃 through an
angle 𝜃 is simply a rotation of each point 𝐹 through an
angle 𝜃 about point 𝑃.

𝜌(𝐹) 𝐹

𝜃
𝑃
 Four Plane Isometries (cont.)
Reflection: A reflection 𝜇 of 𝐹 across a line 𝑙 is a
mapping of each point of 𝐹 to its mirror image with
respect to line 𝑙.

𝜇
𝐹 𝜇(𝐹)

𝑙
 Four Plane Isometries (cont.)
Glide Reflection: A glide reflection 𝛾 of 𝐹 is a
combination of a translation and a reflection across a
line 𝑙. This produces a translated mirror image.
𝜏(𝐹)
𝑣Ԧ
𝐹
𝜇
𝑙

𝛾(𝐹)
 Four Plane Isometries (cont.)
Translations and rotations are examples of orientation-
preserving isometries (which we illustrated with
squares), whereas reflections and glide reflections are
examples of orientation-reversing motions (which we
illustrated with winking smiley faces). [Artin, page 157]
In fact, the four isometries listed above are the only
isometries of the plane:
Theorem. Any isometry of the plane, ℝ2 , is either a
translation, rotation, reflection, or glide reflection.
[Artin, page 158]
 Finite Symmetry Groups,
Translations, and Glide Reflections

Notice that the group ℤ𝑛 consists only of

rotations. The group 𝐷𝑛 only consists of
rotations and reflections. That is, the finite
groups of symmetries of ℝ2 do not include
any translations nor any glide reflections.
The Frieze
Groups
 Frieze Groups, Introduction
We now consider the “discrete frieze groups.” A
discrete frieze group consists of a pattern of finite width
and height that is repeated endlessly in both directions
along its baseline to form a strip of infinite length by
finite height. [Fraleigh, page 116]
For example, we might have the finite pattern and
baseline:
F
This produces the infinite pattern:

…F F F F F F F F F…
 Frieze Groups, Integers Z
This pattern of F’s clearly has a symmetry which admits
translations only:

F F F F F F F F F F F
Translate to the left
right21 4321step:
step:-2
steps:
-11432

So for each integer there is a corresponding translation

(and conversely; the identity translation corresponds to
0). So the frieze group associated with this pattern is the
integers (under addition), ℤ.
 Frieze Groups, ℤ × ℤ2
This pattern of D’s has the translational symmetry which
the pattern of F’s had. But it also admits a rotational
symmetry about a horizontal line through the center of
the pattern:

D D D D D D D D D
Translation to the right
left byby1,0,
1,noand
norotation:
rotation:
a rotation:
(-1,
(1,0)
(0,
0) 1)
 Frieze Groups, ℤ × ℤ2 (cont.)
This pattern of D’s has the translational symmetry which
the pattern of F’s had. But also admits a rotational
symmetry about a horizontal line through the center of
the pattern:

D D D D D D D D D
Translation to the left
rightbyby2,1,and
anda arotation:
rotation:(-2,
(1,1)
1)
So for each pair (𝑥, 𝑦) where 𝑥 is an integer and 𝑦 is either
0 or 1, there is a corresponding translation and rotation
combination which is a symmetry of the pattern. The
symmetry group of this pattern is: ℤ × ℤ2 .
 Frieze Groups, 𝐷∞
This pattern of T’s has the translational symmetry which
the pattern of F’s had. But it does not admit the
rotational symmetry which the pattern of D’s did.
However, it does admit rotational symmetries about a
vertical axis.

T T T T T T T T T T
Rotation about a vertical
Translation axis
to the between
through
right the T’s.
by 1. the T’s.
The symmetry group consists of combinations of these
symmetries. The symmetry group is denoted 𝐷∞ .
 Frieze Groups, 𝐷∞ × ℤ2
This pattern of T’s admits all of the symmetries of the
previous pattern of T’s.

T T T T T T T T T T
T T T T T T T T T T
Rotation Translation to the
about a vertical right
axis the T’s.
by 1. the
between
through T’s.

So the symmetry group includes all of the

symmetries in 𝐷∞ .
 Frieze Groups, 𝐷∞ × ℤ2
But this pattern of T’s also admits a rotation about a
horizontal axis.

T T T T T T T T T T
T T T T T T T T T T
Rotation about a horizontal axis.
The symmetry group is 𝐷∞ × ℤ2 .
 Frieze Groups, Conclusion
The four groups mentioned above are all possible
discrete frieze groups.
Theorem. The collection of discrete frieze groups consists
precisely of the following four groups:
1. The integers, ℤ,
2. The integers times ℤ2 , ℤ × ℤ2 ,
3. The infinite dihedral group, 𝐷∞ , and
4. The infinite dihedral group times ℤ2 , 𝐷∞ × ℤ2 .
[Fraleigh, page 117]
Since ℤ is a subgroup of 𝐷∞ , then each frieze group
contains ℤ as a subgroup.
 Frieze Patterns
Even though there are only four discrete frieze groups,
there are seven types of “frieze patterns.” [Washburn
and Crowe, Appendix]

Gallian describes these seven patterns schematically as

follows.

Pattern 1. R R R R R
Frieze group: ℤ
Generator: translation
 Frieze Patterns

Pattern 2.
R R R R R

Frieze group: ℤ
Generator: glide reflection

Pattern 3. R R R R
Frieze group: 𝐷∞
Generators: translation, reflection about a vertical line
 Frieze Patterns (cont.)
Pattern 4. RR R R RR RR R R

Frieze group: 𝐷∞
Generators: translation, rotation about a point

Pattern 5. R R R R R R
Frieze group: 𝐷∞
Generators: glide reflection, reflection about a vertical
line
 Frieze Patterns (cont.)
Pattern 6.
R R R R R
Frieze group: ℤ × ℤ2
Generators: translation, reflection about a horizontal
line

Pattern 7.
R R R R R R

Frieze group: 𝐷∞ × ℤ2
Generators: translation, reflection about a vertical line;
reflection about a horizontal line
 Frieze Pattern
Examples
There are some more
interesting or artistic
illustrations of the
frieze patterns. Here
are John Conway’s
Frieze Pattern Dance
Steps!
From Mike Lundin’s Central Washington
University’s webpage:
http://www.cwu.edu/~lundin/Courses/
notebydate550/day12a.htm
Frieze Patterns, Flowchart

From J. McDonald and H. Weston’s University of Regina webpage:

http://mathcentral.uregina.ca/RR/database/RR.09.01/mcdonald1/
Frieze Pattern Examples

Dr. Bob’s china cabinet trim.

The pattern idealized.

Reflection
Reflectionabout
abouta ahorizontal
vertical axis.
Translation. axis.
Frieze group: 𝐷∞ × ℤ2
The Wallpaper
Groups
 Wallpaper Groups
The frieze patterns include regular repetitions in one
direction (“dimension”) of a fundamental pattern. So
the frieze groups include all powers of just a translation
- this is why ℤ is a subgroup of each frieze group.

If we consider regular repetitions in two directions

(“dimensions”) of a fundamental pattern, then we will
get a symmetry group which includes all powers of
two (independent) translations. The symmetry group
will then include ℤ × ℤ as a subgroup. Such a
symmetry group is called a cystallographic group or a
wallpaper group.
 Wallpaper Group, Example
Consider this grid of R’s. We can translate the pattern
to the left/right or up/down (or a combination):
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
R R R
Translation down
to
R
up the right
by by
1:
R
1:byby
left(0,1)
R
1:1:(-1,0)
(0,-1) (1,0)
R
 Wallpaper Group, Example
Consider this grid of R’s. We can translate the pattern
to the left/right or up/down (or a combination):
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R
Translation right by 2 and up by 1: (2,1)
R
 Wallpaper Group, Example
Consider this grid of R’s. We can translate the pattern
to the left/right or up/down (or a combination):
R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R R R R R R R R
R Translation
Since Rpatternleft
this Radmits R R
no rotations norR R
reflections,
by 2 and down by 1: (-2,-1)
then the symmetry group is ℤ × ℤ (this wallpaper
group is denoted p1).
 Wallpaper Group, Example 2
The symmetry group can be ℤ × ℤ yet the grid of images
not arranged in rows and columns at right angles.

From
We view the
These plane Nakamura’s
Makato as tiled
directions tesselation
by the
determine unit website:
(ignore
a unit or the different
cell.
http://www.k4.dion.ne.jp/~mnaka/db_main.html
colorations of the fish).
 Wallpaper Group, Example 2
The symmetry group can be ℤ × ℤ yet the grid of images
not arranged in rows and columns at right angles.

This results in a lattice of points.

Lattices for Periodic Plane Patterns
There are five distinct types of lattices that can occur, with resulting
cells:

[Chart 1 from Schattischneider]

Centers of Rotation and Axes of Reflection

[Chart 2 from Schattischneider]

 Generating a Pattern with Symmetry
Group p31m
Chart 5 from Doris Schattischneider’s paper “The Plane Symmetry
Groups: Their Recognition and Notation” [The American
Mathematical Monthly, 85 (1978), 439-450] gives the following
lattice unit and symmetries for the group p31m:

Solid single lines represent the lattice unit (a parallelogram), the

triangle represents an order 3 rotation, the double line represents an
axis of reflection, the arrows represent translations, and the shaded
region is the generating region.
Generating a Pattern with Symmetry
Group p31m

Rotate
Rotate
First
Reflectthe
we …generating
about andaxis.
introduce
the another
generating
the region120
region
a pattern
This o.through
through
completes
with another
120 o120
. o.
no symmetries.
the unit.
Determining a Symmetry Group

The brick pattern of Dr. Bob’s fireplace.

 Determining a Symmetry Group

The
Horizontal
A
Vertical
vertical
horizontal
orderaxes
2axis
axes
centers
ofof
axis
of The
of lattice unit.
reflection.
glide
glide
rotation.
reflection.
reflection.
reflection.

The lattice unit with So, the group of

symmetries for cmm symmetries of the brick
from Chart 2 of pattern is group cmm.
Schattschneider.
 A Flowchart for
Determining a
Symmetry Group

All
So, rotation
again, the
From “The Math & the Art of MC Is
Reflections
Largest
there arotation
in 2
centers
symmetry on group
mirror
order: 2 Yes! is
Escher” webpage:
http://euler.slu.edu/escher/inde reflection?
directions?
x.php/Wallpaper_Patterns lines?
cmm. No!
 The
Crystallographic
Groups in Higher
Dimensions
 Symmetry Groups in 3 Dimensions
We can consider symmetry groups in higher dimensional
spaces as well.
Theorem. The only finite symmetry groups of a set of
points in ℝ3 (that is, the only “finite groups of isometries
of 3-space”) are the groups ℤ𝑛 (for some 𝑛), 𝐷𝑛 (for some
𝑛), 𝑆4 , 𝐴4 , and 𝐴5 . [Gallian, page 465]
You will encounter the symmetry groups 𝑆𝑛 and their
subgroups, the alternating groups 𝐴𝑛 , in Introduction to
Modern Algebra.
There are a total of 230 crystallographic groups in 3-
dimensions. [Gallian, page 483] In 4-dimensions, there are
4,783 crystallographic groups. [Gallian, page 484]
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron
4
1

3 2
4 2
1 2 3 4
𝜄=
3 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
Permutations: 𝜏1 =
1 3 4 2
1 2 3 4
𝜏2 =
1 4 2 3
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron
1
1

3 4
4 2
1 2 3 4
𝜄=
3 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4
Permutations: 𝜏4 =
4 2 1 3
1 2 3 4
𝜏3 =
3 2 4 1
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron
1
1

4 2
4 2
1 2 3 4
𝜄=
3 1 2 3 4
Permutations: 1 2 3 4
𝜏5 =
2 4 3 1
1 2 3 4
𝜏6 =
4 1 3 2
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron
1
1

2 3
4 2
1 2 3 4
𝜄=
3 1 2 3 4
Permutations: 1 2 3 4
𝜏8 =
3 1 2 4
1 2 3 4
𝜏7 =
2 3 1 4
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron

1 2

4 2 3 1

3 4
1 2 3 4
Permutation: 𝜎8 =
2 1 4 3
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron

1 4

4 2 1 3

3 2
1 2 3 4
Permutation: 𝜎5 =
4 3 2 1
 The Symmetry Group of a
Tetrahedron

1 3

4 2 2 4

3 1
1 2 3 4
Permutation: 𝜎2 =
3 4 1 2
 The Symmetry Group of a Tetrahedron: 𝐴4
With the notation of Baumslag and Chandler’s Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of
Group Theory:
∗ 𝜄 𝜎2 𝜎5 𝜎8 𝜏1 𝜏4 𝜏5 𝜏8 𝜏2 𝜏3 𝜏6 𝜏7
𝜄 𝜄 𝜎2 𝜎5 𝜎8 𝜏1 𝜏4 𝜏5 𝜏8 𝜏3 𝜏3 𝜏6 𝜏1
𝜎2 𝜎2 𝜄 𝜎8 𝜎5 𝜏4 𝜏1 𝜏8 𝜏5 𝜏7 𝜏6 𝜏3 𝜏2
𝜎5 𝜎5 𝜎8 𝜄 𝜎2 𝜏5 𝜏8 𝜏1 𝜏4 𝜏3 𝜏2 𝜏7 𝜏6
𝜎8 𝜎8 𝜎5 𝜎2 𝜄 𝜏8 𝜏5 𝜏4 𝜏1 𝜏6 𝜏7 𝜏2 𝜏3
𝜏1 𝜏1 𝜏8 𝜏4 𝜏5 𝜏2 𝜏6 𝜏7 𝜏3 𝜄 𝜎2 𝜎5 𝜎8
𝜏4 𝜏4 𝜏5 𝜏1 𝜏8 𝜏7 𝜏3 𝜏2 𝜏6 𝜎2 𝜄 𝜎8 𝜎5
𝜏5 𝜏5 𝜏4 𝜏8 𝜏1 𝜏3 𝜏7 𝜏6 𝜏2 𝜎5 𝜎8 𝜄 𝜎2
𝜏8 𝜏8 𝜏1 𝜏5 𝜏4 𝜏6 𝜏2 𝜏3 𝜏7 𝜎8 𝜎5 𝜎2 𝜄
𝜏2 𝜏2 𝜏3 𝜏6 𝜏7 𝜄 𝜎5 𝜎8 𝜎2 𝜏1 𝜏8 𝜏4 𝜏5
𝜏3 𝜏3 𝜏2 𝜏7 𝜏6 𝜎5 𝜄 𝜎2 𝜎8 𝜏5 𝜏4 𝜏8 𝜏1
𝜏6 𝜏6 𝜏7 𝜏2 𝜏3 𝜎8 𝜎2 𝜄 𝜎5 𝜏8 𝜏1 𝜏5 𝜏4
𝜏7 𝜏7 𝜏6 𝜏3 𝜏2 𝜎2 𝜎8 𝜎5 𝜄 𝜏4 𝜏5 𝜏1 𝜏8

𝐴4 has
The cosets of the subgroup
a subgroup
formof
a group
order 4.
themselves!
Symmetry Groups of other Platonic Solids
The Platonic solids are regular polyhedra with each face a
regular polygon. The five Platonic solids are the
tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron, and
icosahedron.
The symmetry groups for the Platonic solids are:
• tetrahedron: the alternating group 𝐴4 ,
• cube: the permutation group 𝑆4 ,
• octahedron: the permutation group 𝑆4 ,
• dodecahedron: the alternating group 𝐴5 , and
• icosahedron: the alternating group 𝐴5 . [Gallian, page 465 ]

The cube and octahedron are duals, as is the dodecahedron

and icosahedron. The tetrahedron is self dual.
 The Monster Group
In the search for the classification of finite “simple groups” (see the
Introduction to Modern Algebra notes for details:
http://faculty.etsu.edu/gardnerr/4127/notes/Simple-Groups.pdf ), a
group of symmetries was discovered of a huge order. The group,
now called the monster group, M, is of order
246 320 59 76 112 133 17 19 29 31 41 47 59 71
= 808,017,424,794,512,875,886,459,904,961,710,757,005,754,368,000,000,000
≈ 8.1 × 1053
This group was predicted to exist in 1973 by Berndt Fischer and
Robert Griess and constructed by Griess in 1982. [Ronan, pages 184
and 206]
Wikipedia describes the monster as the automorphism group of the
Griess algebra, which is a 196,884-dimensional commutative
nonassociative algebra.
[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_group, accessed 7/25/2014]
ALGEBRA?
What does this have to do with “Algebra”?

Niels Henrik
Abel Evariste Galois
(1802-1829) (1811-1832)

These
Groupspermutations of thebecame
(rings and fields) zeros ofpart
a polynomial 19th century.
of algebra in the study of
th century to the more abstract
algebraic equations
While looking for anled in the 19formula
algebraic for the zeros of an nth degree
study
of groups in(like
polynomial general and permutation
a quadratic for an ninth particular.
equation groups By the
degree polynomial),
middle
Abel showed century
20th there
of the that group
is not (in theory
general)and
an“abstract
algebraicalgebra”
solutionhadto a
5th degree
become a major area ofequation.
polynomial GaloisThat’s
mathematics. why you take
gave conditions modern
for the
algebra asof
existence a math solution of a general nth degree polynomial
undergraduate.
an algebraic
equation. These conditions involved permutations of the zeros of the
polynomial.
 References
1. Michael Artin, Algebra, Prentice-Hall (1991).
2. Benjamin Baumslag and Bruce Chandler, Schaum’s Outline of
Theory and Problems of Group Theory, McGraw-Hill (1968).
3. John B. Fraleigh, A First Course in Abstract Algebra, 7th
Edition, Addison-Wesley (2002).
4. Joseph A. Gallian, Contemporary Abstract Algebra, 8th Edition,
Brooks/Cole (2013).
5. Mark Ronan, Symmetry and the Monster, Oxford University
Press (2006).
6. Doris Schattischneider, The Plane Symmetry Groups: Their
Recognition and Notation, The American Mathematical
Monthly, 85 (1978), 439-450.
7. D. K. Washburn and D. W. Crowe, Symmetries of Culture:
Theory and Practice of Plane Pattern Analysis, University of
Washington Press (1988).
 Websites
1. Hop David’s “17 Wallpaper Groups” website , an interactive site that
illustrates rotations, translations, glide translations, and reflections:
http://clowder.net/hop/17walppr/17walppr.html
2. George Baloglou’s “Crystallography Now” webpage which give a brief
description and rigorous classification of the seventeen planar
crystallographic groups:
http://www.oswego.edu/~baloglou/103/seventeen.html
3. David Joyce’s “Wallpaper Groups” website which gives a pattern for each
of the wallpaper groups and shows the rotations, translations, glide
translations, and reflections for each:
http://www.clarku.edu/~djoyce/wallpaper/
4. Martin von Gagern’s “Plane Symmetry Examples” webpage gives patterns
and symmetries for the “rosette groups,” frieze groups, and wallpaper
groups: http://www.morenaments.de/gallery/exampleDiagrams/
5. Xah Lee’s “The 17 Wallpaper Groups” website gives patterns with
symmetries and generators, following the notation of Schattisschneider:
http://xahlee.info/Wallpaper_dir/c5_17WallpaperGroups.html