KA30902 HYDRAULICS
CHAPTER 2:
RESISTANCE IN OPEN
CHANNELS
Faculty of Engineering – 2018 – Rosdianah Ramli
THIS CH APTER COVERS:
Discussion on resistance in
open channels
General concepts of open
channels
The specifics of resistance
applications to open channel
situations
FLOW RESISTANCE
• The study of resistance (and velocity distributions) in the
flow of real fluids plays a vital role practical real-
world problems.
• Dominant resistance is due to shear stress imparted to
the fluid by the boundary that creates friction, which
converts energy in water into heat that is then dissipated
through the mass of water or possibly through the
boundary to the atmosphere. Net result is a loss of
useful energy in water.
• Practically, for water to continue flowing in a cross-
sectional length; enough energy must exist at any
particular point to overcome the resistance.
• Hence, resistance losses must be taken into consideration
in hydraulic designs (pump systems, pressure tanks etc).
FLOW IN OPEN CHAN NELS
• Open channel flows are those that are not entirely
included within rigid boundaries; a part of the flow
is in contract with nothing at all (just empty space).
• Flow in open channels almost always represents the
case of turbulent flow in rough surfaces because:
Channel boundaries are not as uniform as are pipe
boundaries
Cross-sectional geometry may not be as regular.
• Empiricism plays an important role in the application
of resistance theory to real-world open channel cases.
STEADY, UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
• Presence of free surface: shaping the flow geometry in
flow direction by flow behavior.
• Adjustment of the flow to be strictly uniform is required
to ignore the effect of gravity in shaping the flow in
the sense that the water surface is planar and the
flow depth is the same at all cross sections along the
flow.
• Steady, uniform flow is primarily a resistance
condition based upon the concept of dynamic
equilibrium within the system.
STEADY, UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
•• Uniformflow in channels represents a state of dynamic
equilibrium.
• Since depth is uniform, hydrostatic forces are equal
and opposite countering the gravitational forces
(that tend to drive the flow) with resistance forces (that
tend to retard the flow).
• Equilibrium of specific energy:
Energy lost through resistance = energy gained through
the change in channel invert.
• Uniform flow in channels always exhibit equality in the
slopes of energy grade line, the channel bottom,
and the water surface
STEADY, UNIFORM FLOW IN OPEN CHANNELS
•
Applying Newton’s 2nd law of motion to the channel reach:
,= sum of forces, m = mass, a = acceleration
a) For dynamic equilibrium, a = 0.
b) Set the 2 forces equal in direction of flow:
Sf
A = cross sectional area
V2 TEL
L = reach length Sw 2g
P = wetted perimeter HGL WS V2
2g
= slope angle of the channelF1 yo
bed So W
α yo
= specific weight of water τo
= boundary shear stress α
hydraulic radius
,,
Thus, .
For small values of , 1,
For uniform flow, and it is customary to use the bottom bed slope in the expression.
CHEZY EQUATION
•• The
most useful resistance equation in governing
uniform flow is the Chezy equation:
, where C = Chezy resistance coefficient.
• Chezy C coefficient is not usually considered to be a
function of the Reynolds number or of fluid
characteristics.
• The Chezy equation has a long history of use in channel
an canal design, where it is desired to design the
channel to carry a given discharge at uniform
flow.
MANNING EQUATION
•• A
factor, n has been used in the popular Kutter formula
as an empirical constant that relates the resistance of
the channel to the roughness of the boundary.
• Recommendation by Robert Manning (1890) leads to the
simple expression of C was made:
• Substitution of equations into the Chezy equation leads
to Manning equation:
,
where n = factor relating the resistance to the roughness
of the channel boundary
• Since Q = AV,
CALCULATION OF NORMAL DEPTH
• Flood control channels and water delivery canals
are usually designed to carry a specified
discharge at normal depth.
• Relationship among discharge, depth, and
channel geometry is central to the practice of
open channel hydraulics.
• Design situations are presented in two cases:
The channel geometry & slope are known and normal
depth to be calculated;
The channel dimensions are determined to carry a
given discharge at a specified normal depth.
• For both cases, Manning equation is employed.
CALCULATION OF NORMAL DEPTH
•• It
is sometimes convenient to separate the terms
representing channel geometry and roughness from the
slope term using conveyance, K:
, where
• This is because slope are usually fairly fixed by the
natural topography of the land surface.
• Channel capacities for various Q can be computed by
plotting K vs depth for given cross-sections.
• Hence, for normal depth the equation can be formulated
as follow:
EXAMPLE 1 (QUESTION)
A rectangular channel 5 m wide carries a
discharge of 100 m3/s at normal depth.
The channel is running on a slope of
0.005 m/m and has a Manning n value of
0.035 (metric). Determine normal depth
for this situation.
EXAMPLE 1 (SOLUTION)
Solution:
Letting b = channel width & yo = normal
depth, nQ
AR 1/ 2
2/3
So
2/3
byo 0.035 100
byo 49.5
2 yo b
1/ 2
(0.005)
2/3
5 yo
5 yo 49.5
2 yo 5
By trial & error , yo 6.65 m.
EXAMPLE 2 (QUESTION)
A trapezoidal channel is to be designed to
carry a discharge of 100 m3/s at a normal
depth of 2 m. Geotechnical
considerations require that the channel
side slopes be no steeper than 2H/1V and
the channel must be laid on a slope of
0.001 m/m. The estimated roughness
coefficient is 0.035. What must be the
bottom width of the channel to
accomplish this purpose?
EXAMPLE 2 (SOLUTION)
2/3
byo ty 0.035 100
2
byo ty
2
o
o
110.68
b 2 yo (1 t )
2 1/ 2 1/ 2
(0.001)
2/3
b(2) 8
(b(2) 8) 110.68
b 8.94
b 33.8 m.
O T H E R A P P L I C AT I O N S
• It is common for some restrictions to be placed
on the channel geometry in design cases:
• Soils & geotechnical considerations may limit the
allowable shear stress, thus limit the maximum
velocity allowable to reduce erosion.
• Required channel slope with a given normal depth may
need to be computed2 for a channel:
nQ
S 2/3
AR
2
nV
S 2/3
• Velocity is to be used:
R
O T H E R A P P L I C AT I O N S
• Flow conditions can be classified depending on the
Froude number.
Flow V
Condition Characteristi Fr
s/ Normal cs gd
Depth
Supercritic Steep slope
al S o > Sc
Fr > 1
Subcritical Mild slope
S o < Sc
Fr < 1
Critical Critical slope
Sc
Fr = 1
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY
• Efficiency of a channel is a function of the channel
geometry and roughness condition.
• From Manning equation for a given slope, roughness,
and cross-sectional area, the capacity of a channel:
varies with hydraulic radius
inversely varies with wetted perimeter.
resistance losses in channel from frictions between
water and channel boundary energy loss
increases with increasing perimeters.
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY
• Example: Excavation of open channel with 20 m2
P = 13
2m P = 14 m 4m m
P = 22
10 m m 10 m 5m
(b) (c)
P = 14
5m m
2m
4m
(a) (d)
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY : TRAPEZOIDAL
• Develop geometric relationships to minimize the
wetted perimeter.
• Using the basic geometry equations (A and P):
A by ty 2
P b 2 y (1 t 2 )1/ 2
• Hence, relationship between b and y to minimize P for
fixed A and side slope is:
A ty 2
b
y
A ty 2
P 2 y (1 t 2 )1/ 2
y
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY : TRAPEZOIDAL
• Minimize P with respect to y with fixed A and t:
dP
0
dy
d
dy
Ay 1 ty 2 y 1 t 2
1/ 2
b
2t 2(1 t 2 )1/ 2 0
y
b 2 y (1 t 2 )1/ 2 t
• The hydraulic radius for the most efficient
trapezoidal section is R = y/2
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY : RECTANGULAR &
TRIANGULAR
• In the case of rectangular where t = 0, the trapezoidal
equation reduces to b = 2y
• However, it is only practicable in cases where the
channel is lined with concrete or some other non-
erodible and stable material.
A ty 2
• For triangular sections,
A
P 2 y 1 t 2
2
1 t 2
t
• Hence, 1
P 4 A t
2
t
CHANNEL EFFICIENCY : TRIANGULAR
• Differentiating previous equation with respect to t with
A assumed constant,
dP 1
2P 4 A1 2 0
dt t
or
1
2
1 or t 1
t
• This shows that any triangular section must have a
right apex to be the most efficient. The hydraulic radius
is: 2
A ty y
R
P 2 y 1 t 2 2 2
EXAMPLE 3 (QUESTION)
A trapezoidal channel is to be designed to
carry a discharge of 150 m3/s and run on
a slope of 0.0025 m/m with side slopes of
2H/1V. If the channel is to be designed for
a maximum hydraulic efficiency (subject
to the side slope restriction), what would
be the depth and width? Let the Manning
n value be 0.035.
EXAMPLE 3 (SOLUTION)
Employing the equation b 2 y (1 t
) t
2 1/ 2
For t = 2, b = 0.472y. Then, from
nQ 0.035 150
Manning’s
AR equation,
2/3
1/ 2 105
So 0.0025
1/ 2
or
2/3
by ty
by ty
2
2
2 1/ 2
105
b 2 y (1 t )
2.472 y 0.5 y
2/3
2
105
But since b = 0.472y,
y 4.85 m
and
b 0.472 y 2.29m
RESISTANCE IN STEADY NON-UNIFORM FLOW
• The resistance relationship have only been discussed in
the context of steady, uniform flow in open channel.
• In the non-uniform case, the assumption is made that
the stage is changing only gradually with respect
to the longitudinal distance along the channel
(gradually varied flow).
• Acceleration is not considered to be negligible.
• Slopes of the channel bed, the water surface (hydraulic
gradient) and the energy gradient are not equal.
• The velocity-based resistance equations (Darcy-
Weisbach, Chezy, Manning, etc.) are valid as long as the
TUTORIALS
1. A trapezoidal channel with a bottom width
of 3 m and side slope of 2H/1V carries a
discharge of 16 m3/s at a normal depth. If
the channel is laid on a slope of 0.0025
m/m and has a roughness coefficient of
0.030, what is the normal depth?
2. A 1-m-diameter circular culvert is laid on a
slope of 0.005 m/m and is carrying a
discharge of 0.7 m3/s. If the roughness
coefficient of the culvert is 0.012, what is
the normal depth for this case?
TUTORIALS
3. Water flows uniformly in a 2-m-wide unfinished
concrete-lined rectangular channel at a depth of 45 cm.
Find the flow rate in m3/s. (Use n = 0.014 – 0.020)
a) The channel slopes 25 cm/km
b) The channel slopes 5 cm/km
c) The channel slopes 15 cm/km
4. A trapezoidal channel is designed to carry a discharge
of 51 m3/s at a normal depth on a slope of 0.0005 m/m.
The side slopes of the channel must be 1.5H/1V and the
Manning n value is 0.035. If the channel is to be a
regular earthen canal in good condition, what should be
its dimension for maximum hydraulic efficiency?
EXERCISES
1. Show that for the most efficient trapezoidal
channel, the side slopes must 1 / be
3. equal to
2. Show that the most efficient trapezoidal
channel section will have a hydraulic radius
equal to one-half the depth.
3. A concrete-lined canal having one side
vertical and other side is sloping at 2:1
carries a discharge of 10 m3/s with velocity of
0.715 m/s. Determine the dimensions of the
canal and the bed slope for minimum cost of
construction if the cost of excavation is RM
2.0/m3 and the cost of lining is RM 6.0/m 2.(n
= 0.014)
