COMPUTER NETWORKS

Lecture Notes
Module I

T C Mishra
[email protected]
Department of Computer Science Engineering &
Application
Out Line of Module I
 Overview of Data Communications and Networking
 Physical Layer
 Digital Transmission
 Analog Transmission
 Multiplexing
 Transmission Media
 Circuit switching and Telephone Network

Text: “Data Communications and Networking” 4th Edition,

Behrouz A Forcuzan, Tata Mc Graw-Hill.
Chapter 1 - Chapter 7
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 2
 Lecture I
Overview of Data Communications
and Networking
• Data Communication
• Networks & Internet
• Protocols & Standards
• Layered Tasks
• Internet Model
• OSI Model
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 3
Data Communication
 Sharing of information is “Data Communication”
 Sharing can be local (face to face)
 Remote (over a distance)
 “Data” refers to facts, concepts and / or
instructions
 In the context of computers, data represented in the
form of 0’s and 1’s
 “Data Communication” is “Exchange of data
between two/more devices via a transmission
medium.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 4
Characteristics of Data Communication

 Delivery: system must deliver data to correct

destination
 Accuracy: Accurate data should be delivered
 Timeliness: Data delivered late are useless

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 5

Components of Data Communication

 Message: It is the Information (data) to be

communicated (shared) with others
 Sender: The device that sends the message
 Receiver: The device that receives the message
 Medium: Physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver
 Protocol: A set of rules that governs the data
communication
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 6
Direction of Data Flow
 Communication can be simplex, Half-duplex, or
full-duplex.
 Simplex: communication is
unidirectional Any real life
examples?
 Half-duplex: bi-directional
but not at the same time

 Full-duplex: bi-directional
and simultaneously. Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 7
Computer Networks
 Interconnection of ‘Intelligent devices’ is called a
‘computer network’
 Network Criteria: to design an effective and efficient
network the most important criteria are
 ‘Performance’ depends on
 No of users: large no of users may slow down the ‘response time’
due to heavy traffic
 Type of transmission medium: defines the speed at which the data
can travel (speed of light is the upper bound)
 Hardware: A high-speed computer with greater storage provides
better performance
 Software: efficient mechanisms to transform raw data into
transmittable signal, to route the signals, to ensure error-free
delivery etc.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 8

Network Criteria
 Reliability depends on
 Frequency of failure: all networks fail occasionally
 Recovery time: how long does it takes to restore

the service
 Security depends on
 Unauthorized access should be prevented
 Should be protected from viruses, spy wares, etc.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 9

Physical Structure
 It refers to the way two or more devices are
attached to a link
 Point-to-Point: provides a dedicated link
between two devices. i.e. entire capacity
of the link is reserved for transmission
between those two devices
 Multi-point: In this configuration more
than two devices share the same link
 If several devices can use the link at

same time.

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Topology
 Topology of a network is the geometric
representation of the links and nodes of a
physical network.

ETC.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 11

Mesh Topology
 Every device has a dedicated point-to-
point link to every other device
 A fully connected mesh network has

n(n-1)/2 links ( nC2 )

 Every device required to have at least

n-1 I/O ports

 Eliminates traffic problem as links are

not shared
 It is robust as breaking one link couldn't disturb the network

completely
 Privacy/security is maintained

 Installation and reconfiguration is difficult due to complicated

connections
 Expensive in terms of cost and space

 Very Difficult to add/remove a device

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Star Topology
 Each computer has a point-point
link only to a central controller
called the HUB
 HUB acts as an exchange to send
data from one device to another
 Less expensive than mesh
 It is robust as one link failure causes that device to go out of
the network and it does not affect others
 Easy fault finding

 when one device sending data to another device, all other

devices have to be idle

 however, a switch in place of hub can eliminate this problem

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 13

Bus Topology
 Multi-point
 One long cable acts as a

backbone to link all the

devices
 There is a limit on the no of

drop lines (tapes) as in each

tape some energy is lost
 Installation is easy
 It uses less cabling than star or mesh

 difficult reconnection and fault finding

 Adding new device may require modification/replacement of the

backbone otherwise the performance will be degraded

 Fault in bus stops all transmission, the damaged area reflects

signal back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both

directions Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 14
Ring Topology
 Point-to-point
 Each device is linked only
to its immediate
neighbours
 To add or remove a
device requires moving
two connections only
 Each device in the ring has a repeater to regenerate a signal
before passing to neighbour.
 Easy to install and reconfiguration

 Maximum ring length and no of devices are fixed

 failure of one device causes network failure if not bypassed

 unidirectional data traffic

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 15
Category of networks
 The networks may be categorized according to
its size, ownership, distance it covers and its
physical architecture.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 16

Local Area Network(LAN)
 LAN is a privately owned
networks within a single
building or campus
 Size is restricted? (10m-1KM)

 Common LAN topologies are

bus, ring, star

 Speed is high (100Mbps – 1 Gbps)

 These are designed to share resources (hardware/software)

between personal computers or workstations

 the size is restricted as the H/w will not work correctly over

wires that exceed the bound as electrical signal becomes weaker

over distance due to resistance.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 17

 Figure 1.13 LAN (Continued)

Example: LAN of an organisation

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Metropolitan Area Network(MAN)
 MAN is designed to extend
over an entire city
 It may be either

private(cable TV, Bank

ATMs), or public
(Telephone)
 May be a single network like cable TV or may be a means of

connecting a number of LANs into a larger network so that the

resources may be shared
 It forms the basic long distance connection in a large network &

technologies that provide high speed digital access to individual

homes & business
 Also sometimes called the access network, as it provides access

to various services, say cable TV, Internet etc.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 19
Wide Area Network(WAN)
 WAN provides long distance
transmission of data, voice,
image, and video information
over large geographical
areas that may comprise a
country, a continent or even
the whole world
 It utilizes public, leased or private communication devices
 The end systems are connected to subnets, which are intelligent

entities and contains communication channels and routers

 A WAN wholly owned by a single company is called an

‘enterprise network ‘
 speed is less than LANs

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 20

A metropolitan area network based on cable TV.

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Defining A Protocol

A Protocol defines the format and the order

of messages exchanged between two or
more communicating entities, as well as the
actions taken on the transmission and/or
receipt of a message of other event.
. . . J. F. Kurose

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 22

Protocols contd.
 A protocol defines what is communicated, How
it is communicated, when it is communicated
 The key elements of a protocol are
 Syntax: refers to structure or format of data, i.e. the
order in which they are presented
Example: a date day month Year
8 8 16
 Semantics: refers to structure meaning of each

section
 Timing: refers to two characteristics. i. When data

should be sent. ii. How fast they can be sent

 Depends on link availability, and speed of receiver

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 23

Standards
 The standard provides a model for development that
makes it possible for a product to work regardless of
the individual manufacturer
 Example: A steering wheel of a car from one make may not
feet into other make
 Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an
open and competitive market and guarantees
international inter-operability
 Two categories of standards
 De Facto: that have just happened without any formal plan
 De Jure: are formal, legal standards adopted by some
authorized or officially recognized body

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 24

Standards Organizations
 Standards Creation Committees
 International Standards Organization (ISO)
 International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication standards (ITU-T)
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
 Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
 Forums
 The forums work with universities and users to test, evaluate and the conclusion is
presented to standard bodies to standardize new technologies
 Regulatory Agencies
 Govt. agencies responsible for protecting the public interest.
 Internet Standards
 Internet draft is a working document with no official status and a 6 month life
time.
 If recommended by IETF then a draft may be published as a Request for
Comment (RFC)
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Layered Tasks
 The service that we expect from a Computer Network are much
more complex than just sending a signal from one device to
another.
 To solve a complex problem we apply the strategy “Divide and
Rule”. i.e. the main problem is divided into some small tasks/
levels of reduced complexity and then handled individually.
 In other words Each level is responsible to solve a more focused
problem of the original problem is a called layer in network
terminology.
 Each layer observes a different level of abstraction and performs
some well defined functions.
 Each layer uses the service of the layer below below it and each
layer provides service to its upper layer.
 There exists an interface between each pair of adjacent layers
that defines the information and services a layer must provide to
the adjacent layer. Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 26
Example: Sending a letter

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 27

Example: The philosopher-translator-secretary architecture.

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The Internet model
 The layered protocol stack that is
used in practice is a five ordered
layer Internet model, also called
TCP/IP protocol suite
 The responsibility of each layer is
well defined and focused
 Each end user device engaged in communication must have
these layers in it (in form of HW or SW)
 An intermediate device may not have all the layers but at least
first two/three layers
 Layer x on one device communicates with layer x of other
device.
 The processes on each machine that communicate at a given
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 29
layer are called peer-to-peer processes.
Peer-to-peer processes

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An exchange using the Internet model

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 31

 Physical layer
 The responsibility of physical layer is to coordinate the functions
required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium
 The duties are
 Defines the characteristics of the interface between devices and
transmission medium
 Type of transmission medium, topology, etc…
 Representation of bits
 Encoding, voltage level, duration etc…
 Data rate
 Synchronization of bits
 Sender’s and receiver’s clock shynchronization

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 32

 Data link layer
 is responsible for transmitting frames from
one node to the next
 The duties are
 Framing
 Stream of bits received from upper layer is divided into manageable
data units(?) called frame
 Physical addressing
 Adds the address of sender and receiver in the header
 Flow control
 This mechanism helps to prevents overflow at receiving side
 Error control
 Mechanism to detect/correct errors in transmission
 Access Control
 Which device has the control over the link at a given time
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 33
Datalink layer contd.
 Physical addressing and hop-hop delivery can
be done in one network only

 If the message is to be passed across the

network then network layer functionality is
required.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 34
Network Layer
 The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets
from the original source to the final destination possibly
across multiple networks.
 The Duties are
 Logical addressing
 It adds logical addresses into the packet header
 Routing
 Forwarding the packet towards the destination

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 35

Source-to-Destination

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 An Example
sending from a node with network
address A and physical address 10 to a
node with a network address P and
physical address 95
Because the two devices are located on
different networks, we cannot use
physical addresses only;as the physical
addresses only have local jurisdiction.
What we need here are universal
addresses that can pass through the LAN
boundaries. The network (logical)
addresses have this characteristic.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 37
 Transport layer
 The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message
from one process to another.
 The Duties
 Port addressing
 Actual transmission occurs from a specific process on one device to a
process of another.
 Port address (an integer) defines the process/application in a device
 Segmentation and reassembly
 Message received from application layer is divided in to transmittable
segments containing sequence nos

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 38

Transport layer contd.
 Connection control
 Two types of connection service is allowed
 Connection oriented: establish the connection, use the connection, release
the connection. (guarantee of delivery)
 Example: telephone
 Connection less: each message carries the destination address and routed
through the system
 Example: postal service
 Flow Control
 Responsible for end-to-end flow control as well as

intermediate flow control (congestion)

 Error Control
 End-to-end error control

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 39

 Application layer

 The application layer is responsible for providing

services to the user.
 It provides user interfaces and support services
such as email, remote file transfer, remote logins
etc…

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 40

Summary of duties

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 41

 OSI model
 Session Layer is the network dialog controller, It
establishes maintains and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating systems
 Duties are
 Dialog control
 Synchronization at data level
 Presentation layer is concerned with syntax and
semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems
 Duties are
 Translation: converting to bit streams
 Encryption: to ensure privacy
 Compression: increases virtual BW
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 42
 Lecture II
The Physical Layer

• Signals
• Digital Transmission
• Analog Transmission
• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 43

Position of the physical layer

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 44

Signals
 Information is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic
signals
 Signals are of two types
 Analog Signal is a continuous signal in which the signal intensity
varies smoothly over time
 Digital Signal is a discrete signal in which the signal intensity
maintains a constant level for some period and then changes to
another constant level.
 Analog Data: human voice, Digital data: data stored in a
computer

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 45

 Periodic / Aperiodic Signals

Periodic Signal: A signal completes a pattern within a measurable

time frame (period)
The completion of one full pattern is called a cycle. The
period is constant for any given periodic signal
Aperiodic Signal: Changes without exhibiting a pattern
In data communication, we commonly use periodic and analog
signals and aperiodic digital signals

Aperiodic Signal
Periodic Signal
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 46
 Analog Signals
 The sine wave is the most fundamental form of
a periodic signal
 Represented as s(t)=Asin(2ft+)
 Characteristics
 Amplitude: intensity of signal at any given time
 Frequency: no of cycles/periods in one second,
measured in Hz
 Frequency = 1/Period
 Phase: describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero
 A complete cycle is 360o = 2
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 47
Amplitude Period and frequency

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 48

Time and frequency domains

A signal can also be represented in frequency domain

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 49

Composite signals
 A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in
data communications; we need to change one
or more of its characteristics to make it useful.
 When we change one or more characteristics
of a single-frequency signal, it becomes a
composite signal made of many frequencies.
 A composite signal is composed of multiple
sine waves called harmonics
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 50
 Example : A Square wave

 According to Fourier analysis, this signal can be

decomposed in to a series of sine waves i.e.
4A 4A 4A
s (t )  sin 2ft  sin[2 (3 f )t ]  sin[2 (5 f )t ]  ...
 3 5
 f is called fundamental frequency
 3f is third harmonic, and 5f 5th harmonic
 To recreate the complete square wave requires
all the odd harmonics upto infinity
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 51
Three harmonics

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 52

 Frequency spectrum

The Signal using the

frequency domain and
containing all its
components is called the
frequency spectrum of
that signal
 The range of frequencies that a medium can pass is called its
Bandwidth
 The bandwidth is a property of a medium: It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can satisfactorily
pass.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 53

Example
A signal has a spectrum with frequencies between 1000 and
2000 Hz (bandwidth of 1000 Hz). A medium can pass
frequencies from 3000 to 4000 Hz (a bandwidth of 1000 Hz).
Can this signal faithfully pass through this medium?

Solution
The answer is definitely no. Although the signal can have the
same bandwidth (1000 Hz), the range does not overlap. The
medium can only pass the frequencies between 3000 and 4000
Hz; the signal is totally lost.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 54
Digital Signals
 Digital signals can be better described by two terms
 Bit interval: time required to send a single bit
 Bit rate: number of bit intervals in one second
 A digital signal is a composite signal having an infinite
number of frequencies i.e. infinite bandwidth
 The digital BW is bits per sec (bps)

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 55

 Analog vs Digital
• Channels or links are of two types
• low-pass: lower limit is zero and
upper limit is any frequency ()
• band-pass: has a band width with
frequencies f1and f2

 A digital signal theoretically needs a BW between o and 

 if the upper limit will be relaxed than digital transmission can use a low-pass
channel

 An analog signal has a narrower BW with frequencies f1and f2

 Also BW of analog signal can be shifted, i.e. f1and f2 can be shifted to f3 and
f4

 Analog signal can use a band-pass channel

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 56
Data rate limits
 Data rate depends on
 The BW available
 The levels of signal that can be used
 The quality of channel (i.e. the level of noise)
 Nyquist Bit rate: noise less channel
 Bit rate= 2  BW  lg L
 For a noise less channel the nyquist bit rate defines the
theoretical maximum bit rate
 BW: band width of channel, L: no of signal levels used to
represent data
 Shannon Capacity: noisy channel
 Capacity = BW  lg (1+SNR)
 The signal-to-noise ratio is the statistical ratio of power of the
signal to the power of the noise
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 57
Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this
channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution

First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit.

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the
number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2  1 MHz  log2 L  L = 4
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 58
Transmission Impairment
 In practice the signal sent at sending end using
a transmission medium is not exactly same at
receiving end due to some impairments
 Attenuation: loss of energy

 Decibel: is the unit to measure the relative strength

of two signals
 dB = 10 log (P2/P1)
 It is negative if attenuated and +ve if amplified
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 59
Distortion
 Signal changes its forms at the receiving end
 It is normally happens in case of composite
signals
 As each signal component has its own
propagation speed thus received out of phase

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 60

Noise
 Several types of noise such as
 thermal noise: random motion of electrons in a wire
 induced noise: sources such as motors and elecrical
appliances
 cross talk: effect of one wire over the other
 impulse noise: is a spike may corrupt the original
signal that comes from power lines and lightning

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 61

 Signal-to-Noise-Ratio
 SNR=avg.signal power
 avg.noise power

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 62

 More terminologies

 Throughput: number of
bits passed per second at a
given point

 Propagation Delay: the

time required for a bit to
travel from one point to
another

 Wavelength: is the
distance a signal can travel in
=c/f

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 63

Digital Transmission

Line coding
Block Coding
Sampling
Transmission Mode

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What is Line Coding?
 Is the process of converting binary data (a
sequence of bits) to a digital signal

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Signal Level versus Data Level
 No of values allowed in a signal
 No of values used to represent data

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 66

DC Component
 A component having zero frequency
 Can’t be passed through a transformer
 Energy consumed is useless

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 67

Pulse Rate versus Bit Rate
 No of pulses per second
 Minimum amount of time required to transmit a symbol
 No of Bits per second
 If a pulse carries one bit then pulse rate and bit rate are
same
Example
A signal has two data levels with a pulse duration of 1 ms. We
calculate the pulse rate and bit rate as follows:
Pulse Rate = 1/ 10-3= 1000 pulses/s
Bit Rate = Pulse Rate x log2 L = 1000 x log2 2 = 1000 bps
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 68
Self Synchronization
 No Synchronization: if receivers clock is faster

 A Signal that includes timing information along

with data is called a self-synchronizing signal
 i.e. transitions in the signal alerts the receiver to reset
the clock Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 69
Example

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1

percent faster than the sender clock. How many extra
bits per second does the receiver receive if the data
rate is 1 Kbps? How many if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

Solution
At 1 Kbps:
1000 bits sent 1001 bits received1 extra bps
At 1 Mbps:
1,000,000 bits sent 1,001,000 bits received1000 extra bps
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Line Coding Schemes

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UniPolar Encoding

Note:

Unipolar encoding uses only one voltage

level.

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Unipolar Encoding
 One is coded as +ve voltage
 Zero is coded as –ve voltage

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Polar Encoding

Note:

Polar encoding uses two voltage levels

(positive and negative).

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Polar Encoding
 Avarage voltage level is decreased
 DC component problem is avoided
 Four Important type of polar encoding are:

There are many others also!

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 75
NRZ-L Encoding

Note:

In NRZ-L the level of the signal is

dependent upon the state of the bit.

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NRZ-I Encoding

Note:

In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a 1 is

encountered.

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NRZ Encoding

 Loss of synchronization incase of continuous

ones or zeros
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RZ Encoding

Note:

RZ uses three values i.e. +ve, zero & -ve

Signal change occurs during each bit

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RZ Encoding

 A +ve voltage means 1 and –ve voltage means

zero.
 But signal returns to zero at mid of the bit
interval Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 80
RZ Encoding
Note:

RZ is a good encoded digital signal that contain

a provision for synchronization.
But it requires two signal changes to encode 1
bit  more bandwidth!

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 81

Manchester Encoding

Note:

In Manchester encoding, the transition at

the middle of the bit is used for both
synchronization and bit representation.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 82

Manchester Encoding

 It achieves the synchronization but with two levels of

amplitude
 Datarate(R) = 1/tb , tb: bit duration in seconds
 Modulation rate (D) = R/b, b: no of bits per signal
element
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 83
Diff-Manchester Encoding

Note:

In differential Manchester encoding, the

transition at the middle of the bit is used
only for synchronization.
The bit representation is defined by the
inversion or noninversion at the
beginning of the bit.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 84
Diff-Manchester Encoding

 Manchester Encoding used for 802.3 base band

– CSMA/CD Lans
 Diff-Manchester is used foe 802.5 token ring
LAn
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 85
Bipolar Encoding

Note:

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels:

positive, zero,
and negative.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 86

Bipolar Encoding
 AMI(alternate mark inversion)

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 87

 Multilevel scheme
2B1Q Encoding
 Two Binary One Quaternary
 Each pulse represents 2 bits

-1
-3

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 88

MLT-3 Encoding
 Multi transmission, three level (MLT-3)
 The signal transition from one level to the next
at the beginning of a 1 bit

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 89

Block Coding
 To ensure synchronization some
redundant bits may be introduced

Steps in Transformation
 Division
 Substitution
 Line Coding

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 90

Block Coding

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 91

Substitution

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 92

4B/5B Encoding
 Each 4-bit ‘pattern' of received data has an
extra 5th bit .
 If input data is dealt with in 4-bit patterns there
are 24 = 16 different bit patterns. With 5-bit
‘pattern' there are 25 = 32 different bit
patterns.
 As a result, the 5-bit patterns can always have
two '1's in them even if the data is all '0's a
translation.
 This enables clock synchronizations required
for reliable data transfer.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 93
4B/5B encoding
Data Code Data Code

0000 11110 1000 10010

0001 01001 1001 10011

0010 10100 1010 10110

0011 10101 1011 10111
0100 01010 1100 11010
0101 01011 1101 11011
0110 01110 1110 11100
0111 01111 1111 11101
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 94
Example 8B/6T
 sends 8 data bits as six ternary (one of three voltage
levels i.e. +, 0, -) signals.
 Each bit block of 8-bit group with a six symbol code
 i.e. 8 bit  28 & six symbol 36 possibilities
 i.e. the carrier just needs to be running at 3/4 of the
speed of the data rate.
 Helps to maintain synchronization and error checking

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 95

 Analog-to-Digital-data conversion
Pulse Code Modulation

 Generates a series of pulses by sampling a

given analog signal
 Sampling is measuring amplitude in equal intervals

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 96

PAM

Note:

Pulse amplitude modulation has some

applications, but it is not used by itself in
data communication. However, it is the
first step in another very popular
conversion method called
pulse code modulation.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 97
PCM: Quantization
 It is a method of assigning integral values in a
specific range to sampled instances

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 98

Binary encoding
 Each quantized value is translated into a 7bit
binary equivalent.
 The eighth bit indicates the sign

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 99

Line coding
 The binary digits are transformed to a digital
signal by using one of the line coding
techniques.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 100

Analog to PCM Digital Code

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 101

Sampling rate
 Accuracy of reproduction depend on the no of
samples taken
 What should be the sampling rate?

Note:

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be at least 2 times the
highest frequency.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 102
Nyquist Theorem

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 103

Example

What sampling rate is needed for a signal with a bandwidth of

10,000 Hz (1000 to 11,000 Hz)?
Solution
The sampling rate must be twice the highest frequency in the
signal:

Sampling rate = 2 x (11,000) = 22,000 samples/s

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 104

Example

A signal is sampled. Each sample requires at least 12 levels of

precision (+0 to +5 and -0 to -5). How many bits should be
sent for each sample?
Solution
We need 4 bits; 1 bit for the sign and 3 bits for the value.

A 3-bit value can represent 23 = 8 levels (000 to 111), which

is more than what we need.
A 2-bit value is not enough since 22 = 4.
A 4-bit value is too much because 24 = 16.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 105
Example

We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,

assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to
4000 Hz.
Sampling rate = 4000 x 2 = 8000 samples/s

Bit rate = sampling rate x number of bits per sample

= 8000 x 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 Kbps
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 106
Transmission mode

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 107

Parallel Transmission
 Information is organized into group of bits
 All bits of one group are transmitted with each clock tick
from one device to other

 More speed
 Cost is high restricted to short distance
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 108
Serial Transmission
 One bit follows another using same line

 Reduced cost (by a factor n)

 Parallel/serial converter required
 May used for large distance
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 109
Asynchronous Transmission
 Serial transmission occurs in one of the two
ways
Note:

In asynchronous transmission, we send 1

start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or
more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
There may be a gap between each byte.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 110

Asynchronous Transmission
 Insertion of extra bits & a gap makes it slower
 But cheap and effective

 Suitable for low speed communication like KB to

computer. i.e. typing is done one character at a time
and unpredictable gap between characters.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 111
Asynchronous Transmission
 When receiver detects a start bit, it starts a timer and
begins counting
 After receiving a stop bit it ignores all pulses till next
start bit arrives and resets the timer

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 112

Synchronous Transmission

Note:

In synchronous transmission,
we send bits one after another without
start/stop bits or gaps.
It is the responsibility of the receiver to
group the bits.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 113
Synchronous Transmission
 More speed
 Synchronization is necessary

 Accuracy is completely dependent on the

ability of the receiving device to keep an
accurate count of the bits as they come in
 Byte synchronization is done in datalink layer
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 114
Analog Transmission
Modulation of Digital Data

Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
Bit/Baud Comparison

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 115

Digital to analog modulation

It is Needed if the transmission line is analog but the data

produced is binary.
Example: sending data from a computer via a public access
telephone line

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 116

Bit rate / Baud rate
Note:

Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud

rate is the number of signal units per second.
Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
The sending device produces a signal that acts as a basis
of information signal called carrier signal or carrier
frequency
The digital information is then modulates the carrier signal
by modifying one or more of its characteristics.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 117

Example

An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000

signal units are sent per second, find the baud rate and the bit
rate
Solution

Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s)

Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
Example

The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6

bits, what is the baud rate?
Solution

Baud rate = 3000 / 6 = 500 baud/s

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 118
 Amplitude Shift Keying
• The intensity of the signal is
varied to represent binary one
or zero
• ASK is highly susceptible to
noise interference, i.e a zero
may be changed to 1 or vice
versa
• If one of the bit values is represented by no
voltage then it is called on/off keying (OOK). It
results in reduction of energy transmitted.
• ASK modulated signal contains many simple
frequencies
• band width is given by BW=(1+d) Nbaud
• Where Nbaud is the baud rate and d is a factor
of modulation with minimum value=0 Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 119
Frequency Shift Keying
 Frequency of carrier signal
varies to represent a binary
1 or 0
 Effect of noise is less,
receiving device ignores
spikes but more Bandwidth
is required
 Although there are two
carrier frequencies, the
process of modulation
produces a composite signal
 Bandwidth = fc1 – fc0 + Nbaud

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 120

Example
Find the maximum bit rates for an FSK signal if the bandwidth
of the medium is 12,000 Hz and the difference between the
two carriers is 2000 Hz. Transmission is in full-duplex mode.

Solution
Because the transmission is full duplex, only 6000 Hz is
allocated for each direction.
BW = baud rate + fc1  fc0
Baud rate = BW  (fc1  fc0 ) = 6000  2000 = 4000
But because the baud rate is the same as the bit rate, the bit
rate is 4000 bps.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 121
Phase Shift Keying
 Phase of carrier signal varies
to represent a binary 1
(180o)or 0 (0o) also called 2-
PSK or binary PSK
 Avoids problems of noise and
bandwidth
 Can be represented in a
constallation diagram or
phase-state diagram
 BW=same as of ASK
 More variations in phase may
be added to represent more
than one bit
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 122
Other variations of PSK
4-PSK / Q-PSK, 2 bits per baud

8-PSK, 3 bits per baud

i. The bit rate increases as

compared to baud rate
ii. But needs sophisticated
devices to distinguish small
difference in phase
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 123
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Note:

QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK

so that a maximum contrast between each
signal unit (bit, dibit, tribit, and so on) is
achieved.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 124

4-QAM & 8-QAM Constellation

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 125

16-QAM constellations

QAM is less susceptible to noise than ASK?

Bandwidth required for QAM is same as PSK and ASK
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 126
 Modulation of Analog Signals
• Representation of analog information by an analog signal

Methods:
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
Frequency Modulation (FM)
Phase Modulation (PM)

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 127

Amplitude modulation
• The carrier signal is modulated so that
its amplitude varies with the changing
amplitude of modulating signal
• Phase and frequency remains the same
• The modulating signal becomes an
envelope to the carrier
• The bandwidth of an AM signal is twice
the bandwidth of the modulating signal
• BWt = 2  BWm
• BWt is total bandwidth
• BWm is bandwidth of modulating signal

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 128

Frequency modulation
• The carrier signal is modulated so
that its frequency varies with the
changing amplitude of modulating
signal
• Phase and peak amplitde remains
the same
•The bandwidth of an AM signal is
ten times the bandwidth of the
modulating signal
• BWt = 10  BWm
• BWt is total bandwidth
• BWm is bandwidth of modulating
signal

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 129

 Lecture III
The Physical Layer contd.

• Multiplexing
• Transmission Media
• Switching

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 130

Multiplexing
 It is not practical to have a separate line for each other device we
want to communicate
 Therefore, it is better to share communication medium
 The technique used to share a link by more than one device is
called multiplexing
 Multiplexing needs that the BW of the link should be greater than
the total individual BW of the devices connected.
 In a multiplexed system one link may contain more than one
channel

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 131

Categories of multiplexing

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 132

Frequency Division Multiplexing
 FDM is an analog
multiplexing technique
that combines signals
 Signals generated by
each device modulate
different carrier
frequencies
 These modulated
signals are combined to
form a composite signal
 Demultiplexer uses a
series of filters to
decompose the signal
into its component
signals
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 133
 FDM
f

t
• Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient BW to
accommodate modulated signal
•These BW ranges are channels through which the various
signal travel
• Channels must be separated by strips of unused BWs
(called Guard Bands) to prevent signals from overlapping
• Carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original
signals
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 134
 Example 1
Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4 KHz. We need to
combine three voice channels into a link with a bandwidth of 12 KHz,
from 20 to 32 KHz. Show the configuration using the frequency domain
without the use of guard bands.

Solution
Shift (modulate)
each of the three
voice channels to
a different
bandwidth, as
shown in Figure

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 135

 Example

Five channels, each with a 100-KHz bandwidth, are to be multiplexed

together. What is the minimum bandwidth of the link if there is a need
for a guard band of 10 KHz between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
For five channels, we need at least four guard bands. This means that the
required bandwidth is at least

5 x 100 + 4 x 10
= 540 KHz
as shown in Figure

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 136

 Example
Four data channels (digital), each transmitting at 1 Mbps, use a satellite
channel of 1 MHz. Design an appropriate configuration using FDM
Solution
• The satellite channel is analog. We divide it into four
channels, each channel having a 250-KHz bandwidth.
• Each digital channel of 1 Mbps is modulated such that each 4
bits are modulated to 1 Hz.

• One solution is 16-

QAM modulation.
• Figure shows one
possible configuration.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 137

Wave Division Multiplexing
 Very narrow bands of light
from different sources are
combined to make a wider
band of light
 A prism is used to bend a beam of light based on the angle of
incidence and frequency and acts like a multiplexer
 Another prism may be used to reverse the process and acts like
a demultiplexer

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 138

Time division Multiplexing
 Each shared connection occupies a portion of time
but uses full BW f
 The data flow of each connection is
divided into units
 For n input connections, a frame is t
organised into a minimum of n units
 Each slot
carrying one
unit from each
section
 Data rate of
the link has to
be n times the
data rate of
one unit Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 139
Time division Multiplexing contd.
 If the data rate of a link is 3 times the data rate of a
connection
 then the duration of a unit on a connection will be 3
times that of a time slot

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 140

 Example
Four 1-Kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find
(1) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (2) the transmission rate of
the link, (3) the duration of a time slot, and (4) the duration of a frame?

Solution
1. The duration of 1 bit is 1/1 Kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms).
2. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of connection, i.e. 4
Kbps.
3. The duration of each time slot is 1/4 th of the bit duration
before multiplexing i.e. 1/4 ms or 250 s.
or inverse of data rate i.e. 1/4 Kbps = 250 ms.
4. The duration of a frame is same as duration of each unit,
i.e. 1 ms.
or 4 times the bit duration i.e. 4 * 250
Computer ms = 1ms
Networking / Module I / TCM / 141
Example
Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each channel sends 100
bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per channel, show the frame traveling on
the link, the size of the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and
the bit rate for the link.
Solution

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 142

Example

A multiplexer combines four 100-Kbps channels using a time slot of 2

bits. Show the output with four arbitrary inputs. What is the frame rate?
What is the frame duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit
duration?

Solution

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 143

Example Solution
We have four sources, each creating 250
characters per second. If the 1. The data rate of each source
interleaved unit is a character and 1 is 2508=2000 bps
synchronizing bit is added to each 2. The duration of a character
frame, find is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
3. The link needs to send 250
(1) the data rate of each source, frames per second.
(2) the duration of each character in each 4. The duration of each frame
source, is 1/250 s, or 4 ms.
5. Each frame is 4 x 8 + 1 = 33
(3) the frame rate, bits.
(4) the duration of each frame, 6. The data rate of the link is
250 x 33, or 8250 bps.
(5) the number of bits in each frame, and
(6) the data rate of the link.
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 144
Transmission Media
 Signals in the form of electromagnetic energy is
propagated through transmission media from
one device to another device

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 145

Classes of transmission media

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 146

Guided Media
 Provides a specific path from one device to another,
includes
 Twisted-Pair Cable
 Consists of two conductors(normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together

 Due to twists, the noise interference and crosstalk affects

both wires equally thus cancels each other

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 147

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 148
Unshielded vs Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

 STP has a metal foil covering each pair of insulated

conductor
 Metal casing improves mechanical strength, prevents of
noise or cross talk but it is more expensive
 STP is produced by IBM and seldom used else where.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 149

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 150
Coaxial Cable
 It can carry higher frequency ranges
than UTP
 The outer metallic wrapping serves
both as a shield against noise and
as the second conductor

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 151

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 152
Fiber-Optic cables
 Transmits signals in the form of visible light
 It uses the refraction property of light for transmission
 i.e. light travels in a straight line in an uniform
medium and changes the direction when passes from
one medium to another having different density

Core: glass or plastic, cladding: covering with less dense glass or plastic

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 153

Advantages and Disadvantages
Adavntages
 Higher Bandwidth
 BW is not limited by medium but by signal generation and reception
 Less Signal Attenuation
 Can run 50 KM without regeneration
 No electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
 Light weight

Disadvantages
 Installation and Maintenance

 Unidirectional (two fibers needed to make it bi-directional)

 Cost

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 154

Unguided Media
 It transports electromagnetic waves without using a
physical conductor called Wireless Communication

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 155

Wireless transmission waves
 Wireless transmission is broadly divided into three groups
 Radio Wave: Between 3KHz to 1GHz, omni directional, can travel long
distance thus making suitable for log-distance broadcasting like AM
radio, FM radio, TV, cordless phones etc.

 Microwave: Ranging from 1 and 300GHz, unidirectional, low interference

uses unidirectional antennas with line-of-Sight (LOS) propagation
 Very high frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls, used for long
distance transmission, cellular phones, wireless LANs, two types:
terrestrial microwave and satellite microwave
 Infrared: frequencies from 300GHz to 400THz, can be used for very
short range communication, cannot penetrate walls, confined to one
room only(remote control of TV), no licensing required
 May be used to communicate between devices such as keyboards, mice,
PCs, printers, handset, PDAs etc.

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 156

Switching
 To connect multiple devices over a distance we
adopt a method called switching
 Switches are hardware and/or software devices
capable of creating temporary connections as per
requirements
 A switched network consists of a series of
interlinked switches
 Switching Methods
 Circuit switching
 Packet switching[Datagram,Virtual-circuit]
 Message switching

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 157

Circuit Switching
 It consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection between
two stations is dedicated path made of one or more links.
 It creates a direct physical connection between two devices i.e. it establishes a
physical circuit before transmission

 Circuit Switching Techniques

 Space Division Switches

 Crossbar switch, multistage switch

 Time division switches

 Time Slot Interchange

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 158
Crossbar switch
 It connects n I/Ps and m O/Ps in a grid
 Each cross point consists of a electronic switch

 The order of switch required is huge O(nm)

 It is impractical because of the size of the crossbar
 It is also inefficient because in practice 25% of the
switches are used at a given time
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 159
Multistage switch
 Uses crossbar switches in several stages
 The design of multistage switch depends on the no of stages and
the no of switches required in each stage

 Number of outputs in one stage=number of switches in the next

stage
 The number of cross points required is much less than a crossbar
switch
 The reduction in the number of cross points results in blocking.
i.e. one input is blocked to connect to a output due to
unavailability of a path
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 160
Time Division Switches
 It uses time division multiplexing to achieve switching
 Time Slot Interchange(TSI)
 It changes ordering of slots based on desired connections

 It consists of RAM with several memory location

 TSI fills up incoming data inorder of reception
 Slots are sent out in an order based on the decission of
control unit

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 161

Packet Switching
 Circuit switching are best suited for voice
communication, as data communication are bursty in
nature i.e. data transmitted in blocks with gaps
between them
 A circuit switched link assumes a single data rate for
both devices
 In Circuit switching all transmissions are equal, priority
base communication is not allowed
 In Packet switching data transmitted in discrete units
called packets
 There are two approaches for packet switching
 Datagram approach, and Virtual Circuit approach
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 162
Datagram Approach

 In this approach each packet treated independently called

datagrams
 Each datagram contains appropriate information about the
destinations and the network carries the datagrams towards
destination
 Datagrams may reach at destination out of order
 The links joining each pair of nodes may contain multiple
channels. Each of these channels is capable of carrying
datagrams from several sources or from a single source
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 163
Virtual Circuit Approach
 In this approach the relationship between all packets belonging
to a message is preserved
 A single route is chosen between sender and receiver at the
beginning of session
 All packets now travel one after another along the same route
 It is implemented in two formats
 Switched Virtual Circuit (SVC), and Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC)
 Switched Virtual Circuit
 A Virtual Circuit is created whenever it is needed (e.g. TCP’s three way
handshake) and exists for the duration of the specific exchange
 Each time a device makes a connection to another device, the route may
be same or may differ in response to varying network conditions
 Permanent Virtual Circuit
 The same virtual circuit is provided between two users on a contineous
basis. The circuit is dedicated to specific users without making a
connection establishment or release
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 164
 Comparison
 A circuit switch connection creates a physical path between two
points where as a virtual circuit creates a route between two
points
 The Network resources (link and switches) that make a path
are dedicated but that make a route can be shared by other
connections
 The line efficiency is greater in Packet switching as a single link
can be shared by many packets over time
 A packet switching network can perform data-rate conversion.
i.e. two stations having different data rates can exchange
packets but it is not possible in circuit switching
 In a typical user/host data connection, much of the time line is
idle thus making circuit switching inefficient
 When traffic becomes heavy on a circuit switching network,
some calls are blocked, but in packet switching network
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 165
Circuit Switching Datagram Virtual-Circuit
Dedicated transmission path No dedicated path No dedicated path
Continuous transmission of data Transmission of packet Transmission of packet

Fast enough for interactive Fast enough for interactive Fast enough for interactive
Messages are not stored Packets may be stored until Packets may be stored until
transmitted delivered
The path is established for Route established for each Route established for entire
entire conversation packet conversation
Call set-up delay, transmission Packet transmission delay Call setup delay, packet
delay transmission delay
Busy signal if called party busy Sender may be notified if Sender notified of connection
packet not delivered denial
Overload may block call setup; Overload increases packet delay Overload may block call set-up;
no delay for established calls increases packet delay
Usually no speed or code Speed and code conversion Speed and code conversion
conversion
Fixed Bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth Dynamic use of bandwidth
No overhead bits after call Overhead bits in each Overhead bits in each
setup packet packet
Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 166
End of Module I

Computer Networking / Module I / TCM / 167