HVAC LAB

Basic Design of HVAC

- Load Calculations
- Design of Structure
- ASHRAE HVAC Systems and Equipment
- Designing in accordance to ASHRAE
HEAT FLOW RATES

In air-conditioning design, four related heat flow rates, each of which varies with time, must be
differentiated:
a. Space heat gain ---------------- How much heat (energy) is entering the space?
b. Space cooling load ------------ How much energy must be removed from the space to keep
temperature and relative humidity constant?
c. Space heat extraction--------- How much energy is the HVAC removing from the space?
d. Cooling load (coil) ------------- How much energy is removed by the cooling coil serving various spaces
plus any loads external to the spaces such as duct heat gain, duct leakage, fan heat and outdoor makeup
air?
SPACE HEAT GAIN

This instantaneous rate of heat gain is the rate at which heat enters into and/or is generated within a space
at a given instant. Heat gain is classified by:
The manner in which it enters the space –
a. Solar radiation through transparent surfaces such as windows
b. Heat conduction through exterior walls and roofs
c. Heat conduction through interior partitions, ceilings and floors
d. Heat generated within the space by occupants, lights, appliances, equipment and processes
e. Loads as a result of ventilation and infiltration of outdoor air
f. Other miscellaneous heat gains
Sensible heat - Heat which a substance absorbs, and while its temperature goes up, the substance does not
change state. Sensible heat gain is directly added to the conditioned space by conduction, convection,
and/or radiation. Note that the sensible heat gain entering the conditioned space does not equal the
sensible cooling load during the same time interval because of the stored heat in the building envelope.
Only the convective heat becomes cooling load instantaneously. Sensible heat load is total of
a. Heat transmitted thru floors, ceilings, walls
b. Occupant’s body heat
c. Appliance & Light heat
d. Solar Heat gain thru glass
e. Infiltration of outside air
f. Air introduced by Ventilation
Latent Heat Loads - Latent heat gain occurs when moisture is added to the space either from internal
sources (e.g. vapor emitted by occupants and equipment) or from outdoor air as a result of infiltration or
ventilation to maintain proper indoor air quality. Latent heat load is total of
a. Moisture-laden outside air form Infiltration & Ventilation
b. Occupant Respiration & Activities
c. Moisture from Equipment & Appliances
To maintain a constant humidity ratio, water vapor must condense on cooling apparatus at a rate equal to
its rate of addition into the space. This process is called dehumidification and is very energy intensive, for
instance, removing 1 kg of humidity requires approximately 0.7 kWh of energy.
COOLING LOAD CALCULATION METHOD

For a thorough calculation of the zones and whole-building loads, one of the following three methods
should be employed:
a. Transfer Function Method (TFM): This is the most complex of the methods proposed by ASHRAE and
requires the use of a computer program or advanced spreadsheet.
b. Cooling Load Temperature Differential/Cooling Load Factors (CLTD/CLF): This method is derived from the
TFM method and uses tabulated data to simplify the calculation process. The method can be fairly easily
transferred into simple spreadsheet programs but has some limitations due to the use of tabulated data.
c. Total Equivalent Temperature Differential/Time-Averaging (TETD/TA): This was the preferred method for
hand or simple spreadsheet calculation before the introduction of the CLTD/CLF method.
These three methods are well documented in ASHRAE Handbook Fundamentals,
DESIGN INFORMATION

To calculate the space cooling load, detailed building information, location, site
and weather data, internal design information and operating schedules are
required. Information regarding the outdoor design conditions and desired
indoor conditions are the starting point for the load calculation and is discussed
below.
OUTDOOR DESIGN WEATHER CONDITIONS

A. Dry bulb temperatures corresponding annual cumulative frequency of occurrence

B. Wind speeds corresponding annual cumulative frequency of occurrence

C. Wind direction most frequently occurring d. Average of annual extreme maximum and minimum dry-bulb temperatures and
standard deviations.

In choosing the HVAC outdoor design conditions, it is neither economical nor practical to design equipment either for the annual
hottest temperature or annual minimum temperature, since the peak or the lowest temperatures may occur only for a few hours
over the span of several years. Economically speaking short duration peaks above the system capacity might be tolerated at
significant reductions in first cost; this is a simple risk - benefit decision for each building design.
Therefore, as a practice, the ‘design temperature and humidity’ conditions are based on frequency of occurrence.
INDOOR AIR QUALITY AND OUTDOOR AIR REQUIREMENTS

According to the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), 1989, the causes of indoor
air quality complaints in buildings are inadequate outdoor ventilation air. There are three basic means of
improving indoor air quality: (1) eliminate or reduce the source of air pollution, (2) enhance the efficiency
of air filtration, and (3) increase the ventilation (outdoor) air intake.
These ventilation requirements are based on the analysis of dilution of CO2 as the representative human
bio-effluent. As per ASHRAE standard 62-1999, comfort criteria with respect to human bio-effluents is
likely to be satisfied, if the indoor carbon dioxide concentrations remain within 700 ppm above the
outdoor air carbon dioxide concentration.
BUILDING CHARACTERISTICS

• To calculate space heat gain, the following information on building envelope is required:
• a. Architectural plans, sections and elevations – for estimating building dimensions/area/volume
• b. Building orientation (N, S, E, W, NE, SE, SW, NW, etc), location etc
• c. External/Internal shading, ground reflectance etc.
• d. Materials of construction for external walls, roofs, windows, doors, internal walls, partitions, ceiling,
insulating materials and thick nesses, external wall and roof colors - select and/or compute U-values for
walls, roof, windows, doors, partitions, etc. Check if the structure is insulated and/or exposed to high
wind.
• e. Amount of glass, type and shading on windows
OPERATING SCHEDULES

• Obtain the schedule of occupants, lighting, equipment, appliances, and processes that contribute to the
internal loads and determine whether air conditioning equipment will be operated continuously or
intermittently (such as, shut down during off periods, night set-back, and weekend shutdown). Gather
the following information:
• • Lighting requirements, types of lighting fixtures
• • Appliances requirements such as computers, printers, fax machines, water coolers, refrigerators,
microwave, miscellaneous electrical panels, cables etc
• • Heat released by the HVAC equipment.
• • Number of occupants, time of building occupancy and type of building occupancy
THERMAL ZONING

Thermal zoning is a method of designing and controlling the HVAC system so that occupied areas can be
maintained at a different temperature than unoccupied areas using independent setback thermostats. A
zone is defined as a space or group of spaces in a building having similar heating and cooling requirements
throughout its occupied area so that comfort conditions may be controlled by a single thermostat.
When doing the cooling load calculations, always divide the building into zones. Always estimate the
building peak load and individual zones airflow rate. The building peak load is used for sizing the
refrigeration capacity and the individual zone loads are helpful in estimating the airflow rates (air-handling
unit capacity).
In practice the corner rooms and the perimetric spaces of the building have variations in load as compared
to the interior core areas. The following facts may be noted:
THERMAL ZONING

a) The buildings are usually divided into two major zones.

• Exterior Zone: The area inward from the outside wall (usually 12 to 18 feet, if rooms do not line the
outside wall). The exterior zone is directly affected by outdoor conditions during summer and winter.
• Interior Zone: The area contained by the external zone. The interior zone is only slightly affected by
outdoor conditions and usually has a uniform cooling.
b) Single-zone models shall be limited to open floor plans with perimeter walls not exceeding 40 feet in
length.
c) For large building footprints, assume a minimum of five zones per floor: one zone for each exposure
(north, south, east & west) and an interior zone.
CLTD/SCL/CLF METHOD OF LOAD CALCULATION (ASHRAE
FUNDAMENTALS)

As mentioned before, the heat gain to the building is not converted to cooling load instantaneously. CLTD
(cooling load temperature difference), SCL (solar cooling load factor), and CLF (cooling load factor): all
include the effect of (1) time-lag in conductive heat gain through opaque exterior surfaces and (2) time
delay by thermal storage in converting radiant heat gain to cooling load.
This approach allows cooling load to be calculated manually by use of simple multiplication factors.
COOLING LOAD TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE (CLTD )

is a theoretical temperature difference that accounts for the combined

effects of inside and outside air temp difference, daily temp range, solar
radiation and heat storage in the construction assembly/building mass. It
is affected by orientation, tilt, month, day, hour, latitude, etc.

CLTD factors are used for adjustment to conductive heat gains from walls,
roof, floor and glass.
COOLING LOAD FACTOR (CLF)

accounts for the fact that all the radiant energy that enters the
conditioned space at a particular time does not become a part of the
cooling load instantly. The CLF values for various surfaces have been
calculated as functions of solar time and orientation and are available in
the form of tables in ASHRAE Handbooks.

CLF factors are used for adjustment to heat gains from internal loads such
as lights, occupancy, power appliances.
SOLAR COOLING LOAD FACTOR (SCL)

factors are used for adjustment to transmission heat gains from glass.
EXTERNAL COOLING LOAD

As discussed before, the total cooling load on a building consists of external as well as internal
loads. The external loads consist of heat transfer by conduction through the building walls, roof,
floor, doors etc, heat transfer by radiation through fenestration such as windows and skylights.
All these are sensible heat transfers.
ROOF CONSIDERATION AND CALCULATION

The basic conduction equation for heat gain is q = U A ΔT.

Q = U * A * (CLTD)
Where
• Q = cooling load, Btu/hr
• U = Coefficient of heat transfer roof or wall or glass, Btu/hr.ft².°F
• A = area of roof, ft2
• CLTD = cooling load temperature difference °F.
WALLS CONSIDERATION AND CALCULATION

The cooling load from walls is treated in a similar way as roof:

Q Wall = U * A * CLTD Wall Corrected
Where
• Q Wall = Load through the walls in Btu/hr
• U = Thermal Transmittance for walls in Btu/ (h ft2 F)
• A = area of walls in ft2
• CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for walls in °F
Example:
The wall has a 4" brick exterior, a 1" air gap, and 8" concrete block wall. Calculate the overall U value of the
walls (Btu/hr/ft2/°F) based on the materials used and the standards set forth in ASHRAE. The tabulated
values are as follows:
Q Wall = U * A * CLTD Wall Corrected
Two ideas are important here. The first is the idea of thermal resistance. Heat energy flows from hot
spaces to cold spaces and it increases as the temperature difference increases. The material which
separates the temperature extremes has a certain resistance to energy flow. When the resistance is high,
the rate at which energy flows through the material is low; when the resistance is low, high energy flow
rates are expected. We insulate walls to lower the rate at which energy flows through the walls.
SOLAR LOAD THROUGH GLASS

Solar load through glass has two components:

1) Conductive and 2) Solar Transmission
The absorbed and then conductive portion of the radiation
through the windows is treated like the roof & walls where
CLTD values for standard glazing are tabulated in ASHARE
fundamentals handbook.
For solar transmission, the cooling load is calculated by the
cooling load SCL factor and shading coefficient (SC).
The cooling load equations for glass are:
Conductive Q Glass Conductive = U * A * CLTD Glass Corrected
Solar Transmission Q Glass Solar = A * SC * SCL
Where
• Q Conductive = Conductive load through the glass in Btu/hr
• Q Solar = Solar transmission load through the glass in Btu/hr
• U = Thermal Transmittance for glass in Btu/ (h ft2 F)
• A = area of glass in ft2
• CLTD = Cooling Load Temperature Difference for glass in °F
• SC = Shading coefficient
• SCL = Solar Cooling Load Factor
Example:
Estimating U value and compare cooling load of different glass types/with or without drapes
U values can also be estimated, if thermal resistance (R) or thermal conductivity of glass material is known. U
value is inverse of R-value.
The R-value is calculated as R = l/k where l is the thickness of the material and k is the thermal conductivity.
• The thermal resistances for the window with and without drapes are:
• Without drape: R Total = R airfilm + R window + R airfilm
• With drapes: R Total = R airfilm + R drapes + R gap + R window + R airfilm
Assumed data
• Thickness of glass = 1/8 inch
• Curtain-window spacing = 3.5 inch
• Conductivity of glass = 0.81 BTU/(hr ft °F)
• Conductivity of drapes = 0.035 BTU/(hr ft °F)
• Thickness of drapes = 1/16 inch
• Thickness of insulated drapes = ½ inch
• For calculating U-values:
• R series = R1 + R2 + R3 + etc
• U series = 1/ R series
FROM LOAD CALCULATION APPLICATION MANUAL
PARTITIONS, CEILINGS AND FLOORS

Whenever a conditioned space is adjacent to a space with a different temperature, transfer of heat
through the separating physical section must be considered.
Q = U A (Ta - Trc)
Where
• U = coefficient of overall heat transfer between adjacent and conditioned space in Btu/ (h ft2 F) See 1997
ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 24 or 2001 ASHRAE Fundamentals, and Chapter 25.
• A = area of partition in ft2, ceiling or floor calculated from building plans
• Ta = Temperature of adjacent space in °F (Note: If adjacent space is not conditioned and temperature is
not available, use outdoor air temperature less 5°F)
• Trc = Inside design temperature of conditioned space in °F (assumed constant)
COMMON AIR LEAKS
INTERNAL COOLING LOADS
The various internal loads consist of sensible and latent heat transfers due to occupants, products,
processes appliances and lighting. The lighting load is only sensible. The conversion of sensible heat gain
(from lighting, people, appliances, etc.) to space cooling load is affected by the thermal storage
characteristics of that space and is thus subject to appropriate cooling load factors (CLF) to account for the
time lag of the cooling load caused by the building mass. The weighting factors equation determines the
CLF factors.
PEOPLE

Q sensible = N (QS) (CLF)

Q latent = N (QL)
Where
• N = number of people in space from ASHRAE, Table A28-3
• QS, QL = Sensible and Latent heat gain from occupancy is given in 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals Chapter 28,
Table 3)
• CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy.

Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends. The table below gives
representative rates at which heat and moisture are given off by human beings in different states of activity.
Often these sensible and latent heat gains constitute a large fraction of the total load
SNAPSHOT OF OCCUPANCY HEAT GAIN VALUES IN ASHRAE
HEAT GAIN FROM OCCUPANTS AT VARIOUS ACTIVITIES (AT
INDOOR AIR TEMPERATURE OF 78°F)
LIGHTS

The primary source of heat from lighting comes from light-emitting elements. Calculation of this load
component is not straightforward; the rate of heat gain at any given moment can be quite different from
the heat equivalent of power supplied instantaneously to those lights. Only part of the energy from lights is
in the form of convective heat, which is picked up instantaneously by the air-conditioning apparatus. The
remaining portion is in the form of radiation, which affects the conditioned space only after having been
absorbed and re-released by walls, floors, furniture, etc. This absorbed energy contributes to space cooling
load only after a time lag, with some part of such energy still present and reradiating after the lights have
been switched off.
Generally, the instantaneous rate of heat gain from electric lighting may be calculated from:
Q = 3.41 x W x FUT x FSA
Cooling load factors are used to convert instantaneous heat gain from lighting to the sensible cooling load;
thus the equation is modified to
Q = 3.41 x W x FUT x FSA x (CLF)
Where
• W = Watts input from electrical lighting plan or lighting load data
• FUT = Lighting use factor, as appropriate
• FSA = special ballast allowance factor, as appropriate
• CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy. See 1997 ASHRAE Fundamentals, Chapter 28, Table 38

Note: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or if cooling is off at night or during weekends. The total light
wattage is obtained from the ratings of all lamps installed, both for general illumination and for display use.
POWER LOADS

The industrial and commercial applications use various equipments such as fans, pumps, machine tools,
elevators, escalators and other machinery, which add significantly to the heat gain. There are 5 equations
in use for different scenarios.
Case #1
If the motor and the machine are in the room the heat transferred can be calculated as
Q = 2545 * (P / Eff) * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
Eff = Equipment motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor (normally = 1.0)
FLM = Motor load factor (normally = 1.0)
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
In this situation the total power are transferred as heat to the room.
Note! If the machine is a pump or a fan most of the power are transferred as energy to the medium and
may be transported out of the room. For such cases, case 4 shall be used.
Case #2
If the motor is outside and the machine is in the room the heat transferred can be calculated as
Q = 2545 * P * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Case #3
If the motor is belt driven and the motor and belt is outside and the machine is in the room the heat transferred can be
calculated as
Q = 2545 * P * Belt Eff * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
Belt Eff = Belt transmission efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Case #4
If the motor is in the room and the machine is outside the heat transferred can be calculated as
Q = 2545 * [P/Eff - P] * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
Eff = Motor efficiency, as decimal fraction
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
Note: FUM = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours
Case #5
If the motor is belt driven and the motor and belt is in the room and the machine is outside the heat transferred can be
calculated as
Q = 2545 * [P/ (motor Eff) – P/ (belt Eff)] * FUM * FLM
P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
FUM = Motor use factor
FLM = Motor load factor
APPLIANCES
In a cooling load estimate, heat gain from all appliances-electrical, gas, or steam-should be taken into
account. Because of the variety of appliances, applications, schedules, use, and installations, estimates can
be very subjective. Often, the only information available about heat gain from equipment is that on its
name-plate.
Q Sensible = Qin x Fu x Fr x (CLF)
Q Latent = Qin x Fu
Where
• Qin = rated energy input from appliances [If the appliance nameplate provides the power ratings in
Watts, Qin can be estimated as 3.14 x Wattage of equipment]
• Fu = Usage factor.
• Fr = Radiation factor.
• CLF = Cooling Load Factor, by hour of occupancy.
Note 1: CLF = 1.0, if operation is 24 hours or of cooling is off at night or during weekends.
INFILTRATION AIR
Q sensible = 1.08 x CFM x (To – Ti)
Q latent = 4840 x CFM x (Wo – Wi)
Q total = 4.5 x CFM x (ho – hi)
Where
• CFM = Infiltration air flow rate.
• To, Ti = Outside/Inside dry bulb temperature, °F
• Wo, Wi = Outside/Inside humidity ratio, lb water/lb dry air
• ho, hi = Outside/Inside air enthalpy, Btu per lb (dry air)
SUPPLY FAN HEAT LOAD

Supply and/or return fans that circulate or supply air to the space add heat to the space or system
depending on the location relative to the conditioned space. The heat added may take one or all of the
following forms:
• Instantaneous temperature rise in the air stream due to fan drive inefficiency.
• Temperature rise in the air stream when the air is brought to static equilibrium and the static and kinetic
energy is transformed into heat energy.
The location of the fan and motor relative to the cooling coil and space being conditioned determines how
the heat is added to the system. If the fan is downstream of the cooling coil (draw-thru) then the fan heat
load is added to the space cooling load. If the fan is upstream of the cooling coil, then the fan heat load is
added to the system cooling coil load.
The heat energy is calculated as follows:
Q = 2545 x [P / (Eff1 x Eff2)]
Where
• P = Horsepower rating from electrical power plans or manufacturer’s data
• 2545 = conversion factor for converting horsepower to Btu per hour
• Eff1 = Full load motor and drive efficiency
• • Eff2 = Fan static efficiency
VENTILATION AIR

• Ventilation air is the amount of outdoor air required to makeup for air leaving the space due to
equipment exhaust, exfiltration and/or as required to maintain Indoor Air Quality for the occupants.
(See ASHRAE Standard 62 for minimum ventilation requirements). The heat is usually added to the air
stream before the cooling coil and has no direct impact on the space conditions. The additional cooling
coil load is calculated as follows:
• Q sensible = 1.08 x CFM x (To – Tc)
• Q latent = 4840 x CFM x (Wo – Wc)
• Q total = 4.5 x CFM x (ho – hc)
Where
• CFM = Ventilation airflow rate.
• To = Outside dry bulb temperature, °F
• Tc = Dry bulb temperature of air leaving the cooling coil, °F
• Wo = Outside humidity ratio, lb (water) per lb (dry air)
• Wc = Humidity ratio of air leaving the cooling coil, lb (water) per lb (dry air)
• ho = Outside/Inside air enthalpy, Btu per lb (dry air)
• hc = Enthalpy of air leaving the cooling coil Btu per lb (dry air)
DIVERSITY FACTORS

Diversity of cooling load results from not using part of the load on a design day. Therefore,
diversity factors are factors of usage and are applied to the refrigeration capacity of large air
conditioning systems. These factors vary with location, type and size of application. Generally,
diversity factors can be applied to loads from people and lights as there is neither 100%
occupancy nor total lighting at the time of such other peak loads as peak solar and transmission
loads. The reduction in cooling loads from non-use is real and should be accounted for. Listed
are some average typical diversity factors for large buildings during occupied periods.
In the case of Industrial, diversity should also be applied to the machinery load.
SUPPLY AIR CALCULATIONS

Calculations for the design supply air quantities are dependent on the type of system used. Some
generalizations and assumptions need to be made to assist in the use of the cooling load calculations for
equipment selection and sizing. For constant air volumes with reheat type of system, the design supply air
quantities required are based on the peak requirements for each space. However, if the system selected
allows for air flow to each zone to vary based on load, the peak load on an air conditioning unit serving
several zones or spaces is not equal to the sum of the peak loads of each zone, but will be that amount
necessary to handle the maximum coincident load on the system at a given time. Determining the
maximum coincident load may require additional calculation and analysis.
Supply air flow rate to a space is based only on the total space sensible heat load, thus
CFM = 1.08 x [Q sensible / (TR – Ts)]
Where
• CFM = air flow in cubic feet per minute
• 1.08 = conversion constant = 0.244 X (60/13.5)
• 0.244 = specific heat of moist air, Btu/lb d.a.
• 13.5 = specific volume of moist air, cu-ft. per lb. d.a. (@70°F, 50% RH)
• Q sensible = total room sensible heat gain, BTU per hr.
• TR = Room dry bulb temperature, °F
• Ts = Room supply air dry bulb temperature, °F (not necessarily the same as the temperature of the air
leaving the cooling coil).
LAB ACTIVITY

From all of the equation above and learned from you previous school years
Design a building with complete Systems and Equipment with all the consideration taught from this
presentation.

You may refer to advised to books shown on the next slide

PROVIDE SCHEMATIC AND PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
MY EXPECTATION