Link Budget and

Channels: Large-Scale Path-loss

Sarosh K. Dastoor
ME (Wireless communication Systems and Network),
MIEEE, MISTE, MIETE
PhD (Pursuing- 5G Cellular Mobile Network planning
and Optimization)
Asst Professor, ECC Dept
SCET
 Practical Link Budget Design
using Path Loss Models

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Path Loss Models
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 Propagation Prediction

Topographical terrain data is used extensively to predict propagation

conditions, to optimally select locations for installing cellular base 6
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Considering neither the topography nor terrain features in great detail.
If no interference were present and if omni-directional antennas were
used, such coverage plots tend to show circular cell layouts.
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Pathloss is computed from the terrain features and antenna data.
Received signal powers and interference power levels, determine the
coverage of each base station.
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 Path-Loss Models
Path-Loss models are empirical models that are based on
fitting curves or analytical expressions that recreate a set of
measured data.
Note: A given empirical model might only be valid within
the environment.

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 1) Log-Distance Path-Loss Model
Theoretical and Measurement-based Propagation suggest
that the average received signal power decreases
logarithmically with distance

PL (d): Average path-loss for an arbitrary separation

n : Path-loss exponent
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 Path-Loss Exponent for Different Environments

Environment Path-Loss Exponent n

Free-Space 2
Urban area cellular radio 2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular 3 to 5
radio
In building line-of-sight 1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building 4 to 6
Obstructed in factories 2 to 3

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 2) Log-normal Shadowing
 Distance between two nodes alone cannot fully explain the
signal strength level at the receiver
 Shadowing has been introduced as a means to model the
variation of signal propagation behavior between two different
signal paths assuming the same propagation distance

PL (d): Path-loss model for an arbitrary separation d

Xσ : Shadowing parameter (zero mean Gaussian
distributed random variable in dB with standard deviation σ
also in dB)
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 Received Power in Path-Loss Models

d d
PT - PL  d 
4 3

d
d

Position
Index

1 2 1 2 3 4

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 Received Power in Path-Loss Models

PR  d 

d d X1
X 4
PT - PL  d  X3
4 3 X2
d
d

Position
Index

1 2 1 2 3 4

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 Reception Quality

PR  d 

d d X1
X 4
PT - PL  d  X3
4 3 X2

d
d

Position
Index

1 2 1 2 3 4
γ: Desired received power threshold

Pr  PR  d   γ   Pr  X σ  PT  PL  d   γ 
   
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 Outdoor Propagation Models
 Longley-Rice Model

 Durkin’s Model

 Okumura’s Model

 Hata Model

 PCS extension to Hata Model

 Walfisch and Bertoni

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 3) Okumura’s Model
 Okumura’s model is one of the most widely used models
for signal predictions in urban and sub-urban mobile
communication areas

 This model is applicable for frequencies ranging from 150

MHz to 1000 MHz

 It can cover distances from 1 km to 100 km and it can be

used for base station heights starting from 30m to 1000m

 The model is based on empirical data collected in detailed

propagation tests over various situations of an irregular
terrain and environmental clutter

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 Okumura Model
 Widely used empirical model (no analytical basis!) in
macrocellular environment – Urban environment

No Parameter Value
1 Prediction Median Path Loss
2 *Frequency Range 150 – 1000 MHz
3 Base station Height 30-200 m
4 Mobile Station Height 1-10 m
5 Distance of propagation 1- 20 km
6 Accuracy 10-14dB in Urban and
Sub-urban areas.
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 1) Okumura’s Model

L50  dB  LF  Amu  f ,d   G  h te   G  h re   GAREA

 L50 = the median value or 50th percentile value of

the propagation path loss
 LF = the free space propagation path loss
 Amu = the median attenuation relative to free space
 GAREA = the gain due to the type of environment
 G(hte) = the base station antenna height gain factor
 G(hre) = the mobile antenna height gain factor

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 Okumura’s Model: Amu Curves

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport, Prentice
Hall, 2001

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 Okumura’s Model: GArea Curves

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport, Prentice
Hall, 2001

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 Okumura’s Model: G(hte), G(hre)
 The empirical model of Okumura assumed
hte = 200m, hre = 3m

 h te 
G  h te   20log   30m  h te  1000m
 200 
 h re 
G  h re   10log   h re  3m
 3 
 h re 
G  h re   20log   3m  h re  10m
 3 

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 2) Hata Model
L50  urban  dB  69.55  26.26log  fc   13.82log  h te   a  h re 
  44.9  6.55log  h te   log  d 
• L50 = the median value or 50th percentile value of the
propagation path loss.
• fc (in MHz) = the frequency (15MHz to 1500MHz)
• hte = the effective transmitter height in meters (30m - 200 m)
• hre = the effective transmitter height in meters (1m to 10 m)
• d = the T-R separation in Km
• (hre) = the correction factor for effective mobile (i.e.,
receiver) antenna height which is a function of the size of the
coverage area
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 Hata Model: a(hre)
For a Medium sized city, correction factor is :

a  h re   1.1log  f c   0.7  h re  1.56log  f c   0.8  dB

For a Large city, correction factor is given by:

a  h re   8.29  log 1.54h re    1.1

2
dB for fc  300MHz

a  h re   3.2  log 11.75h re    4.97

2
dB for fc  300MHz

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 Hata Model
 Path loss in suburban area, the equation is
modified as
L 50  dB  L50  urban   2 log  f c / 28  5.4
2

 For path loss in open rural areas, the

formula is modified as
L 50  dB  L50  urban   4.78 log  f c   18.33log  f c   40.94
2

 Hata Model is well-suited for Large cell

mobile systems
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 PCS Extension to Hata Model
An extended version of the Hata model developed
by COST-231 working committee for 2 GHz range.
The COST Hata model is a radio propagation
model (i.e. path loss) that extends the urban Hata
model (which in turn is based on the Okumura
model) to cover a more elaborated range of
frequencies (up to 2 GHz).
COST (COopération européenne dans le domaine de
la recherche Scientifique et Technique) is a European
Union Forum for cooperative scientific research.

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PCS Extension to Hata Model in Urban Area

𝑳𝟓𝟎 𝑼𝒓𝒃𝒂𝒏 𝒅𝑩
= 𝟒𝟔. 𝟑 + 𝟑𝟑. . 𝟗𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒇𝒄 − 𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒉𝒕𝒆 − 𝒂 𝒉𝒓𝒆 + 𝟒𝟒. 𝟗 − 𝟔. 𝟓𝟓𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒉𝒕

For a Medium Sized City:

𝒂 𝒉𝒓𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒇𝒄 − 𝟎. 𝟕 𝒉𝒓𝒆 − 𝟏. 𝟓𝟔𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒇𝒄 − 𝟎. 𝟖 𝒅𝑩

CM=0 dB for medium sized city and suburban areas, CM=3 dB for metropolitan centers

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  fc is the frequency (1500MHz to 2000 MHz)
 hte is the effective transmitter height in meters
(30m to 200 m)
 hre is the effective transmitter height in meters
(1m to 10 m)
 d is the T-R separation in Km (1 Km to 20 Km)
 CM=0 dB for medium sized city and suburban
areas,
 CM=3 dB for metropolitan centers

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  Limitations
This model requires that the base station antenna is
higher than all adjacent rooftops.
 Applicable to / under conditions
This model is applicable to macro cells in urban
areas. To further evaluate Path Loss in suburban or
rural (quasi-)open areas, this path loss has to be
substituted into Urban to Rural / Urban to
Suburban Conversions.

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 Puzzle

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 Walfisch-Ikegami Propagation
Model
 This semi-empirical model is a
combination of the models from J.
Walfisch and F. Ikegami. It was further
developed by the COST 231 project.
 It is now called Empirical COST-
Walfisch-Ikegami Model.

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 The main parameters of the model are:

 Frequency f (800...2000 MHz)

 Height of the transmitter hTX (4...50 m)
 Height of the receiver hRX (1...3 m)
 Distance d between transmitter and receiver
(20...5000 m)
 Parameters depending on the buildings in the
vertical plane between transmitter and receiver:

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  Mean value of building heights hROOF
 Mean value of widths of streets w
 Mean value of building separation b
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

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 This LOS equation is similar to the free space
loss equation.
 It was modified after evaluating measurements in
European cities.
 If the distance is d = 20 m , the loss is almost
equal to the free space loss at the same distance.
 The following graph shows the comparison
between free space loss and the transmission loss
with the LOS equation over the full range of the
distance d.

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

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 Walfisch and Bertoni Model


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 Indoor Propagation Models
 The indoor radio channel differs from the
traditional mobile radio channel in the following
aspects
 Much smaller distances
 Much greater variability of the environment for a
much smaller range of T-R separation distances
 Difficult to ensure far-field radiation
 Propagation within buildings is strongly
influenced by specific features such as
 Building layout
 Construction materials
 Building type
 Open/Closed doors
 Locations of antennas
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 Partition Losses (Same Floor)

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport,
Prentice Hall, 2001

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 Partition Losses between Floors

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport,
Prentice Hall, 2001

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 1) Log-Distance Pathloss Model

 We wish to predict large scale coverage using

analytical and empirical (field data) methods
 It has been repeatedly measured and found that
Pr @ Rx decreases logarithmically with distance.
∴ PL (d) (d / do )n
where n : path loss exponent or

PL (dB) = PL (do ) + 10 n log (d / do )

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 2) Ericsson Multiple Breakpoint Model

Upper bound on
Lower bound the path-loss
on the path-
loss

“Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice 2nd
Edition”, T. S. Rappaport,
Prentice Hall, 2001

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 Attenuation Factor Model
 This was described by Seidel S.Y. It is an in-
building propagation model that includes
 Effect of building type
 Variations caused by obstacles

 nSF represents the path-loss exponent for the same floor

measurements
 FAF represents the floor attenuation factor
 PAF represents the partition attenuation factor for a
specific obstruction encountered by a ray drawn between
the transmitter and receiver
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 Attenuation Factor Model
 FAF may be replaced by an exponent that
accounts for the effects of multiple floor
separation

 nMF represents the path-loss exponent

based on measurements through multiple
floors

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 Example of Reflection in Indoor Models
All Ray Paths for LoS, Single and Double Reflections between Tx1 and RX

Tx1

Rx Tx2

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  There are 16 match-sticks used to create the
figure below. You have to pick only 3 match-
sticks and place anywhere in the same figure to
convert 5 squares to only 4 squares.


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