Solution of linear system of equations

 Circuit analysis (Mesh and node equations)

 Numerical solution of differential equations
(Finite Difference Method)
 Numerical solution of integral equations (Finite
Element Method, Method of Moments)
a11x1  a12 x2    a1n xn  b1  a11 a12  a1n   x1   b1 
a a  a2 n   x2  b2 
a21x1  a22 x2    a2 n xn  b2 

21 22

          
    
an1 x1  an 2 x2    ann xn  bn an1 an 2  ann   xn  bn 

1
 Consistency (Solvability)
 The linear system of equations Ax=b has a
solution, or said to be consistent IFF
Rank{A}=Rank{A|b}
 A system is inconsistent when
Rank{A}<Rank{A|b}
Rank{A} is the maximum number of linearly independent columns
or rows of A. Rank can be found by using ERO (Elementary Row
Oparations) or ECO (Elementary column operations).

ERO# of rows with at least one nonzero entry

ECO# of columns with at least one nonzero entry
2
 Elementary row operations
 The following operations applied to the
augmented matrix [A|b], yield an equivalent
linear system
 Interchanges: The order of two rows can be
changed
 Scaling: Multiplying a row by a nonzero constant
 Replacement: The row can be replaced by the sum
of that row and a nonzero multiple of any other row.

3
 An inconsistent example
1 2  x1  4
 2 4  x    5 
  2   
ERO:Multiply the first row with
-2 and add to the second row
1 2
0 0  Rank{A}=1 Then this
 
system of
equations is
1 2 4  not solvable
0 0  3 Rank{A|b}=2
 

4
 Uniqueness of solutions

 The system has a unique solution IFF

Rank{A}=Rank{A|b}=n

n is the order of the system

 Such systems are called full-rank systems

5
 Full-rank systems
 If Rank{A}=n
Det{A}  0  A is nonsingular so invertible
Unique solution

1 2   x1  4
1  1  x   2
  2   

6
 Rank deficient matrices
 If Rank{A}=m<n
Det{A} = 0  A is singular so not invertible
infinite number of solutions (n-m free variables)
under-determined system

1 2  x1  4
2 4  x   8
  2   
Rank{A}=Rank{A|b}=1
Consistent so solvable
7
 Ill-conditioned system of equations
 A small deviation in the entries of A matrix,
causes a large deviation in the solution.

 1 2   x1   3   x1  1
0.48 0.99  x   1.47   x   1
  2     2  

 1 2   x1   3   x1  3
0.49 0.99  x   1.47   x   0
  2     2  

8
 Ill-conditioned continued.....
 A linear system of
equations is said to
be “ill-conditioned”
if the coefficient
matrix tends to be
singular

9
 Types of linear system of equations to be
studied in this course

 Coefficient matrix A is square and real

 The RHS vector b is nonzero and real
 Consistent system, solvable
 Full-rank system, unique solution
 Well-conditioned system

10
 Solution Techniques
 Direct solution methods
 Finds a solution in a finite number of operations by
transforming the system into an equivalent system
that is ‘easier’ to solve.
 Diagonal, upper or lower triangular systems are
easier to solve
 Number of operations is a function of system size n.
 Iterative solution methods
 Computes succesive approximations of the solution
vector for a given A and b, starting from an initial
point x0.
 Total number of operations is uncertain, may not
converge. 11
 Direct solution Methods
 Gaussian Elimination
 By using ERO, matrix A is transformed into an upper
triangular matrix (all elements below diagonal 0)
 Back substitution is used to solve the upper-
triangular system

Back substitution
 a11  a1i  a1n   x1   b1  a11  a1i  a1n   x1   b1 
                      
 
 ai1  aii  ain   xi    bi   0 ~
 a~ii  a~in   xi    bi 
         
           ERO           
an1 ~
 ani  ann   xn  bn   0  0  a~nn   xn  bn 

12
 First step of elimination
Pivotal element  a11 a1(1n)   x1  b1(1) 
(1) (1) (1)
a12 a13 
 (1) (1) (1)    (1) 
 a21 a22 a23  a2(1n)   x2  b2 
 a31
(1) (1)
a32 (1)
a33  a3(1n)   x3   b3(1) 
    
           
 a (1) an(12) an(13) (1)    b (1) 
 n1  ann   xn   n 

a11
(1) (1)
a12 (1)
a13  a1(1n)   x1   b1(1) 
m2,1  a21
(1) (1)  ( 2) ( 2)    ( 2) 
/ a11  0 a22 a23  a2( 2n)   x2  b2 
m3,1  a31
(1) (1)
/ a11  0 ( 2)
a32 ( 2)
a33  a3( 2n)   x3   b3( 2 ) 
    
            
 an(11) / a11
(1)  0 an( 22) an( 23) ( 2)    b ( 2 ) 
mn ,1   ann   xn   n 

13
 Second step of elimination
a11
(1) (1)
a12 (1)
a13  a1(1n)   x1   b1(1) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2)     ( 2) 
Pivotal element  0 a22 a23  x
a2 n   2  b2 
 0 ( 2)
a32 ( 2)
a33  a3( 2n)   x3   b3( 2 ) 
    
           
 0 an( 22) an( 23) ( 2)    b ( 2 ) 
  ann   x n   n 
a11
(1) (1)
a12 (1)
a13  a1(1n)   x1   b1(1) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2)     ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  x
a2 n   2  b2 
m3, 2  a32
( 2) ( 2)
/ a22  0 0 ( 3)
a33  a3( 3n)   x3   b3( 3) 
    
            
 an( 22) / a22
( 2)  0 an( 33) ( 3)    b ( 3 ) 
mn , 2  0  ann   x n   n 
14
Gaussion elimination algorithm

mr , p  arp( p ) / a (ppp )
arp( p )  0
br( p1)  br( p )  mr , p  bp( p )
For c=p+1 to n
( p 1)
a rc a ( p)
rc  mr , p  a ( p)
pc

15
Back substitution algorithm
a11
(1) (1)
a12 (1)
a13  a1(1n)   x1   b1(1) 
 ( 2) ( 2)    ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  a2( 2n)   x2   b2 
 0 0 ( 3)
a33  a3( 3n)   x3   b3( 3) 
   
           
 0 0 0 an( n1) n 1 an( n1) n   xn 1  b ( n 1) 
     n 1

 ann   xn  
 bn 
(n) (n)
 0 0 0 0  

bn( n )
xn  ( n )
ann
xn 1 
a
1
( n 1)
b
( n 1)
n 1  ann11n xn 
n 1n 1

1  (i ) n

xi  (i ) bi   aik xk  i  n  1, n  2, ,1
(i )

aii  k i 1 
16
 Operation count
 Number of arithmetic operations required by
the algorithm to complete its task.
 Generally only multiplications and divisions are
counted 3 2
n n 5n
 Elimination process  
3 2 6
 Back substitution n 2
n Dominates
2 Not efficient for
different RHS vectors
Total
3
 n n
n 
2

3 3
17
 LU Decomposition
A=LU
Ax=b LUx=b
Define Ux=y
Ly=b Solve y by forward substitution
ERO’s must be performed on b as well as A
The information about the ERO’s are stored in L
Indeed y is obtained by applying ERO’s to b vector
Ux=y Solve x by backward substitution

18
 LU Decomposition by Gaussian elimination
There are infinitely many different ways to decompose A.
Most popular one: U=Gaussian eliminated matrix
L=Multipliers used for elimination
 1 0 0  0 0 a11(1) (1)
a12 (1)
a13  a1(1n) 
m
 2,1 1 0  0 0  0 ( 2)
a22 ( 2)
a23  a2( 2n) 

 m3,1 m3, 2 1  0 0  0 0 ( 3)
a33  a3(3n) 
A  
      0       
mn 1,1 mn 1, 2 mn 1,3  1   0 0 0 an( n1) n 1 an( n1) n 
  
 mn ,1  1  0 ann 
(n)
mn , 2 mn ,3 mn , 4 0 0 0

Compact storage: The diagonal entries of L matrix are all 1’s,

they don’t need to be stored. LU is stored in a single matrix.
19
 Operation count
n3 n Done only once
 A=LU Decomposition 
3 3
n2  n
 Ly=b forward substitution
2 2
n n
 Ux=y backward substitution
3 2
n n
Total 3  n  3
2


 For different RHS vectors, the system can be

efficiently solved.
20
 Pivoting
 Computer uses finite-precision arithmetic
 A small error is introduced in each arithmetic
operation, error propagates
 When the pivotal element is very small, the
multipliers will be large.
 Adding numbers of widely differening
magnitude can lead to loss of significance.
 To reduce error, row interchanges are made to
maximise the magnitude of the pivotal element

21
 Example: Without Pivoting
1.133 5.281   x1  6.414
4-digit arithmetic 24.14  1.210  x   22.93
  2   

24.14 1.133 5.281   x1   6.414 

m21   21.31 0.000  113.7  x    113.8
1.133   2   

 x1  0.9956
 x    1.001  Loss of significance
 2  
22
 Example: With Pivoting
24.14  1.210  x1  22.93
1.133 5.281   x   6.414
  2   

1.133 24.14  1.210  x1  22.93

m21   0.04693 0.000 5.338   x   5.338
24.14   2   

 x1  1.000
 x   1.000
 2  
23
 Pivoting procedures
a11(1) a12(1) a13(1)  a1(i1)  a1(1j)  a1(1n) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  a2i  a2 j  a2 n 
 0 0 ( 3)
a33  a3( 3i )  a3(3j)  a3(3n) 
Eliminated  
          
part
 0 0 0  aii(i )  aij(i )  ain( i )  Pivotal
  row
          
 0 0 0  a (jii )  a (jji )  a (jni ) 
 
          
 (i ) (i ) (i ) 
 0 0 0  ani  anj  ann 
Pivotal column
24
 Row pivoting
 Most commonly used partial pivoting procedure

 Search the pivotal column

 Find the largest element in magnitude

 Then switch this row with the pivotal row

25
 Row pivoting
a11(1) a12(1) a13(1)  a1(i1)  a1(1j)  a1(1n) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  a2i  a2 j  a2 n 
 0 0 ( 3)
a33  a3( 3i )  a3(3j)  a3(3n)  Interchange
  these rows
          
 0 0 0  aii(i )  aij(i )  ain( i ) 
 
          
 0 0 0  a (jii )  a (jji )  a (jni ) 
 
          
 (i ) (i ) (i ) 
 0 0 0  ani  anj  ann 

Largest in magnitude 26
 Column pivoting
a11(1) a12(1)a13(1)  a1(i1)  a1(1j)  a1(1n) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  a2i  a2 j  a2 n 
 0 0 a33 ( 3)
 a3( 3i )  a3(3j)  a3(3n) 
 
          
 0 0 0  aii(i )  aij(i )  ain( i ) 
 
           Largest in
 0 magnitude
0 0  a (jii )  a (jji )  a (jni ) 
 
          
 (i ) (i ) (i ) 
 0 0 0  ani  anj  ann 
Interchange
these columns 27
 Complete pivoting
a11(1) a12(1)a13(1)  a1(i1)  a1(1j)  a1(1n) 
 ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) ( 2) 
 0 a22 a23  a2i  a2 j  a2 n 
 0 0 a33 ( 3)
 a3( 3i )  a3(3j)  a3(3n)  Interchange
  these rows
          
 0 0 0  aii(i )  aij(i )  ain( i ) 
 
          
 0 0 0  a (jii )  a (jji )  a (jni ) 
 
           Largest in
 (i ) 
 0 0 0  ani  anj  ann  magnitude
(i ) (i )

Interchange
these columns 28
 Row Pivoting in LU Decomposition
 When two rows of A are
1  1 
interchanged, those rows  2  2
of b should also be    
 3  3
interchanged.  
 
 Use a pivot vector. Initial  
pivot vector is integers p  i  p   j
   
from 1 to n.  
 j i 
 When two rows (i and j)    
of A are interchanged,  
n  n 
apply that to pivot    
vector.

29
 Modifying the b vector

 When LU decomposition 1   7 .3   7.3 

of A is done, the pivot  3  8 .6    1.2 
     
vector tells the order of  2   1 .2   8.6 
rows after interchanges      
 4  4 . 8   4 .8 
 Before applying forward p  8  b   9.6  b   3.5 
substitution to solve      
6   5 . 2   5.2 
Ly=b, modify the order 7    2 .7   2.7 
of b vector according to      
5   3 .5   9.6 
the entries of pivot 9    6 .9    6.9 
     
vector

30
 LU decomposition algorithm with row
pivoting

Column search for

ark  a pk then p  r maximum entry
Interchaning
t  akc , akc  a pc , a pc  t the rows

mr ,k  ark( k ) / akk( k )
ark( k 1)  mr ,k Updating L matrix
For c=k+1 to n
( k 1)
Updating U matrix a rc a (k )
rc  mr ,k  a
(k )
kc 31
 Example
0 3 2  12  1
A   4  2 1  b   5 p  2
 1 4  2  3  3

Column search: Maximum magnitude second row

Interchange 1st and 2nd rows

 4  2 1   2
A   0 3 2  p  1
 1 4  2 3

32
 Example continued...
 4  2 1   2
A   0 3 2  p  1
 1 4  2 3
Eliminate a21 and a31 by using a11 as pivotal element
A=LU in compact form (in a single matrix)

 4 2 1   2
A   0 3 2  p  1
 0.25 3.5  1.75 3
Multipliers (L matrix)
33
 Example continued...
 4 2 1   2
A   0 3 2  p  1
 0.25 3.5  1.75 3

Column search: Maximum magnitude at the third row

Interchange 2nd and 3rd rows

 4 2 1   2
A   0.25 3.5  1.75 p  3
 0 3 2  1

34
 Example continued...
 4 2 1   2
A   0.25 3.5  1.75 p  3
 0 3 2  1

Eliminate a32 by using a22 as pivotal element

 4 2 1   2
A   0.25 3.5  1.75 p  3
 0 3 / 3.5 3.5  1

Multipliers (L matrix)
35
 Example continued...
 1 0 0   4  2 1   2
A   0.25 1 0  0 3.5  1.75 p  3
 0 3 / 3.5 1  0 0 3.5  1

 2  12   5
p  3 b   5  b   3 
1  3   12 

A’x=b’ LUx=b’
Ux=y
Ly=b’
36
 Example continued...
Ly=b’
 1 0 0  y1   5  y1    5 
 0.25 1 0  y    3   y   1.75
  2    Forward  2  
 0 3 / 3.5 1  y3   12  substitution  y3  10.5

Ux=y
 4  2 1   x1    5   x1  1 
 0 3.5  1.75  x   1.75 Backward  x    2
  2     2  
 0 0 3.5   x3  10.5 substitution  x3  3

37
 Gauss-Jordan elimination
 The elements above the diagonal are made zero at the
same time that zeros are created below the diagonal
a11
(1) (1)
a12  a1(1n) b1(1)  a11
(1) (1)
a12  a1(1n) b1(1) 
 (1)   ( 2) 
a21
(1)
a22  a2(1n) b2(1)   0 a22  a2( 2n) b2( 2 ) 
             
 (1) (1) 
 ( 2) 
an1 bn   0 an( 22) bn 
( 2)
an(12)  (1)
ann  ann

a11
(1)
0  ( 2)
ann b1( 2 )  a11
(1)
0  0 b1( n 1) 
   
 0
( 2)
a22  ( 2)
ann b2( 2 )   0
( 2)
a22  0 b2( n 1) 
             
   
 0 bn( 3)   0 bn( n ) 
( 3) (n)
0  ann 0  ann

38
 Gauss-Jordan Elimination
 Almost 50% more arithmetic operations than
Gaussian elimination
 Gauss-Jordan (GJ) Elimination is prefered when
the inverse of a matrix is required.
A I
 Apply GJ elimination to convert A into an
identity matrix.

I A 1

39
 Different forms of LU factorization
 Doolittle form  a11 a12 a13   1 0 0 u11 u12 u13 
a a23   l21 1 0  0 u22 u23 
Obtained by  21 a22
Gaussian elimination a31 a32 a33  l31 l32 1  0 0 u33 

 a11 a12 a13  l11 0 0  1 u12 u13 

 Crout form a a23   l21 l22 0  0 1 u23 
 21 a22
a31 a32 a33  l31 l32 l33  0 0 1 

1 0 0 d11 0 0  1 u12 u13 

 Cholesky form l
 21 1 0  0 d 22 0  0 1 u23 
l31 l32 1  0 0 d 33  0 0 1 

40
 Crout form
 First column of L is computed li1  ai1
a1 j
 Then first row of U is computed u1 j 
l 11
 The columns of L and rows of U are computed
alternately
j 1
lij  aij   lik u kj j  i, i  1,2,  , n
k 1

aij  k 1 lik u kj
i 1

uij  i  j, j  2,3,  , n
lii

41
 Crout reduction sequence
 a11 a12 a13 a14  l11 0 0 0  1 u12 u13 u14  2
a a22 a23 a24  l21 l22 0 0  0 1 u23 u24 
 21 4

a31 a32 a33 a34  l31 l32 l33 0  0 0 1 u34 
     6
a41 a42 a43 a44  l41 l42 l43 l44  0 0 0 1

1 3 5 7

An entry of A matrix is used only once to compute the

corresponding entry of L or U matrix
So columns of L and rows of U can be stored in A matrix

42
 Cholesky form
 A=LDU (Diagonals of L and U are 1)
 If A is symmetric
L=UT  A= UT DU= UT D1/2D1/2U
U’=D1/2U  A= U’ T U’

This factorization is also called square root

factorization. Only U’ need to be stored

43
Solution of Complex Linear System of Equations

Cz=w
C=A+jB Z=x+jy w=u+jv
(A+jB)(x+jy)=(u+jv)
(Ax-By)+j(Bx+Ay)=u+jv

A  B  x  u 
 B A   y   v
    
Real linear system of equations
44
 Large and Sparse Systems
 When the linear system is large and sparse (a
lot of zero entries), direct methods become
inefficient due to fill-in terms.
 Fill-in terms are those which turn out to be
nonzero during elimination
Fill-in
 a11 0 a13 a14 0 a11 0 a13 a14 0  terms
0 a 0 a24 0  0 a 0 a24 0 
 22  22

a31 0 a33 0 a35  Elimination  0 0 

a33 
a34  
a35
   
a41 a42 0 a44 0 0 0 0 
a44  
a45
 0 0 a53 0 a55   0 0 0 0  
a55
45
 Sparse Matrices
 Node equation matrix is a sparse matrix.
 Sparse matrices are stored very efficiently by
storing only the nonzero entries
 When the system is very large (n=10,000) the
fill-in terms considerable increases storage
requirements
 In such cases iterative solution methods should
be prefered instead of direct solution methods

46