ILLUMINATION

Prepared by:
IRINEO P. QUINTO
ECE / REE
 LIGHT THEORY
• LIGHT PARTICLE THEORY • LIGHT WAVE THEORY
 DEFINITION
• Light may be defined as electromagnetic
radiation that is capable of affecting the sense
of sight.
 VISIBLE SPECTRUM
• Those EM waves that are visible (light) have
wavelengths that range from 0.00004 to
0.00007 cm.
WAVELENGTH, λ

λ = v / f = vT
 VISIBLE SPECTRUM

Approximate
Color Wavelength
(nm)

Red 780 - 622

Orange 622 - 597
Yellow 597 - 577
Green 577 - 492
Blue 492 - 455
Violet 455 - 390

ECE REVIEW / IPQUINTO

 LIGHT - DEFINITION

Light is the Radiant Energy that

provides visual sensation.

Visible Light – spans from 180nm to 700nm

Human Eye responds from 380

(violet) to 700nm (red).
Luminosity Curve of Average
Human
Physical Processes Employed in the
artificial Sources
1. Incandescence
Thermo luminescence is by definition radiation at high temperature. The sources
employing this process are Incandescent Lamp, Gas Lamp, (flames and in oil
Lamps and wax candles). They lead to a continuous spectrum of radiation.
2. Luminescence – Luminescence Electro luminescence by definition
Chemical or Electrical Action on gases or vapour radiation. Here color of radiation
depends on the material employed. Usually this process leads to Line or Band
Spectrum.
3. Fluorescence
Fluorescence is a process in which radiation is absorbed at one wavelength and
radiated at another wavelength eg: UV impinging on Uranium – Fluorescent oils.
This re radiation makes the light radiated visible.
4. Phosphorescence
Phosphorescence is a process when energy is absorbed at some time and
radiated later as glow. Examples of this process are Luminous paints that
contain calcium sulfide that lead to Phosphorescence. They produce light
Radiation after exposure to light.
LIGHT SOURCES CLASSIFICATION

INCANDESCENT LAMPS – produce light by heating a filament until

it glows.

DISCHARGE LAMPS – produce light by ionizing a gas through

electric discharge inside the lamp.

SOLID STATE LAMPS – used the phenomenon of

ELECTROLUMINESCENCE to convert electrical signal directly
into light
COMPARISON OF LIGHT SOURCES
Advantages of incandescent lamps:
― inexpensive
― easy to use, small and does not need auxiliary equipment
― easy to dim by changing the voltage
― excellent color rendering properties
― directly work at power supplies with fixed voltage
― free of toxic components
― instant switching

Disadvantages of incandescent lamps:

― short lamp life (1000 h)
― low luminous efficacy
― heat generation is high
― lamp life and other characteristics are strongly dependent on the supply voltage
― the total costs are high due to high operation costs.
 Cont…
Advantages of tungsten halogen lamps:
― small size
― directional light with some models (narrow beams)
― low-voltage alternatives
― easy to dim
― instant switching and full light output
― excellent color rendering properties

Disadvantages of tungsten halogen lamps

― low luminous efficacy
― surface temperature is high
― lamp life and other characteristics are strongly dependent
on the supply
voltage
 Cont…
Advantages of fluorescent lamps
― inexpensive
― good luminous efficacy
― long lamp life, 10 000 – 16 000 h

Disadvantages of fluorescent lamps

― ambient temperature affects the switch-on and light output
― need of auxiliary ballast and starter or electronic ballast
― light output depreciates with age
― contain mercury
― short burning cycles shorten lamp life
 Cont…
Advantages of compact fluorescent lamps
― good luminous efficacy
― long lamp life (6000-12 000 h)
― the reduced cooling loads when replacing incandescent lamps

Disadvantages of compact fluorescent lamps

― expensive
― some models are not dimmable
― light output depreciates with age
― short burning cycles shorten lamp life
― the current waveform of CFLs with internal electronic ballast is distorted
― contain mercury
Advantages of LEDs:
Cont…
― Small size (heat sink can be large)
― Physically robust
― Long lifetime expectancy (with proper thermal management)
― Switching has no effect on life, very short rise time
― Contains no mercury
― Excellent low ambient temperature operation
― High luminous efficacy (LEDs are developing fast and their range of
luminous efficacies is wide)
― New luminaire design possibilities
― Possibility to change colors
― No optical heat on radiation

Disadvantages of LEDs:
― High price
― Low luminous flux / package
― Risk of glare due to high output with small lamp size
― Need for thermal management
― Lack of standardization
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
 NATURE OF LIGHT
• Rectilinear propagation: Light travels in
straight lines.
• Reflection: Light striking a smooth surface
turns back into the original medium.
• Refraction: Light bends when entering a
transparent medium.
 SHADOW
• The umbra is the region where no light
reaches is screen.
• The penumbra is the outer area where only
part of the light reaches the screen.
 LUMINOUS FLUX
• Luminous flux is the portion of total radiant
power that is capable of affecting the sense of
sight.
• The unit for luminous flux is LUMEN
• Typically only about 10% of the power (flux)
emitted from a light bulb falls in the visible
region.
 STERADIANS: A Solid Angle
• A solid angle of one steradian (1 sr) is
subtended at the center of a sphere by an
area A equal to the square of its radius ( R2 ).
• A unit of solid angle

e.g. if A = r2, it is equal to 1 steradian

 The Lumen
• One lumen(lm) is the luminous flux emitted
from a 1/60 cm2 opening in a standard source
and included in a solid angle of one steradian
(1 sr).
• One lumen is equal to 1/680 W of yellow -
green light of wavelength 555 nm.
 Luminous Intensity
• The luminous intensity I for a light source is
the luminous flux per unit solid angle
• Unit is the candela (cd)
• A source having an intensity of one candela
emits a flux of one lumen per steradian.
 Candela
It is the unit of luminous intensity of a source. It is
defined as 1/60th of the luminous intensity per cm2 of a
black body radiator at the temperature of solidification
of platinum (2045°K)
 1 m2

1m
 Total flux for Isotropic Source
• An isotropic source emits in all directions
• over a solid angle of solid angle of 4 π
steradians

Total flux: F = 4π I
 Illumination of a Surface
• The illumination E of a surface A is defined as
the luminous flux per unit area (F/A) in lumens
per square meter which is renamed a lux (lx).
• An illumination of one lux occurs when a flux
of one lumen falls on an area of one square
meter.

E = F / A lux
 Mean Spherical Candle-Power
The average candle-power of a source is the
average value of its candle power in all directions.
Mean Hemispherical
Candle-Power
 LAMBERT’S COSINE LAW

According to this law, the illumination E

is directly proportional to the cosine of
the angle made by the normal to the
illuminated surface with the direction of
the incident flux.
 NATURAL SOURCES OF LIGHT
• Luminance of the sun: 1,600,000,000 cd/m2
• Luminance of the moon: 2500 cd/m2
 ILLUMINATION SYSTEM

An Illumination system consists of Lamp

(e.g. Incandescent lamp, Discharge lamp or
Fluorescent lamp, LED) along with control
gear placed in a suitable luminaire.
 Luminaries

- Luminaire or Luminaries provide support and

electrical connection to Lamp or Lamps within it.
- control, distribute and direct the Light on to the
object.
- ensure that lamps are operated in a way such that
operating temperature is kept within prescribed
limits.
LIGHT WITH REFLECTOR
LIGHT OUTPUT RATIO, LOR
 GLARE
Glare by definition brightness within the field of vision that
causes discomfort, annoyance interference and eye fatigue. It
reduces the visibility of an object.

Glare is experienced, when Lamps, Windows, Luminaries,

other areas are brighter than general brightness in the
environment.

Direct glare, minimization or avoidance is possible by

mounting luminaries well above the line of vision or field of
vision. Limit both brightness and light flux (in the normal
field of view).
 CATEGORIES OF GLARE

1. Disability glare is that level of glare that impairs

the vision.

2. Discomfort glare only causes feeling of

discomfort that increases or depends on time of
exposure.

3. Annoyance is at lower ever luminance of the glare

but source is more than the general luminance.
 Lighting Considerations

Good interior lighting is governed by :

• intensity (ample to see clearly & distinctly)
• distribution (nearly uniform)
• soft & well diffused light
• color (depending on taste / purpose)
• source location should be above plane of vision
(to avoid glare)
 Lamp Installation

Location of lamps depends on :

• candle power
• maximum allowable spacing
• height at which located
• should be clear of obstruction
• distribution of light required
 Internal Lighting
• Internal lighting includes, for example,
underground car parks, classrooms, operating
theatres, cinemas, homes and factories. The
illumination requirements of all these areas will
be very different.
• At its simplest the illumination requirements can
be specified as the average lux which arrives at a
work surface and uniformity, which means how
evenly the light is distributed over the illuminated
area.
Table of average lux values

Area Minimum Lux Maximum Lux

Retail Lighting 400 500
Office Lighting 450 500
Video terminal 100 200
Classrooms 300 750
Hospital 100 200
Sewing room 1000 2000
Factory 200 500
 LIGHTING SCHEMES
Direct Lighting
the light from the source falls directly on the
object or the surface to be illuminated
Indirect Lighting Semi-direct System
This system utilizes
light does not reach the luminaries which send
surface directly from the most of the light
source but indirectly by downwards directly on the
diffuse reflection working plane but a
considerable amount
reaches the ceilings and
walls
Semi-indirect Lighting General Diffusing System
the light is partly luminaries are employed which
received by diffuse have almost equal light
reflection and partly distribution downwards and
direct from the source upwards
 Roadway Lighting
• For good roadway lighting the following three
points should be considered:
– 1. The luminance of the road (remember that
luminance is what the eye perceives).
– 2. Uniformity of the lighting, how much the
illumination vary along and across the road.
– 3. Glare, how much do the luminaires themselves
shine into the eyes of the drivers.
Some experts have suggested that a luminance of
between 1 and 2 cd/m² is ideal for safe driving, whereas
less than 1 cd/m² is insufficient.
 Road Lighting Arrangements
a) Single sided – located on one side, if width of the road ≤
mounting height. Luminance at the opposite remote end lower
than under the lamp.
b) Staggered – located on either side of the road in a staggered
or zigzag fashion when width is 1 – 1.5 times the mounting
height. Here care is to be taken to avoid dark patches.
c) Opposite – located opposite one another. When width is
greater than 1.5 times the mounting height.
d) Span wire – luminaires suspended along the axis of the
road only normally for narrow roads. Suspended from cables
strung between buildings.
Road Lighting Arrangements
 TUNNEL LIGHTING SCHEME
1. Transverse light radiated at 90º to the axis of the tunnel
may be continuous line of tubular fluorescent lamps that
give good visual guidance, minimal glare and require
simple switching. Only disadvantage is close spacing.

2. Longitudinal – light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis. It

leads to high efficacy and large luminaire spacing.

3. Counter beam is light radiated parallel to the tunnel axis

against the direction of traffic flow.
TUNNEL LIGHTING SCHEME
 Light sources and efficiency
• Luminous efficacy is a measure of how much
of the electrical power supplied to the lamp is
turned into luminous flux
• Luminous efficiency is a measure of how much
of the radiant energy is visible to the human
eye
Lighting Design and Calculations
THE LUMEN METHOD
- This method is also called: Photometrical Computation and mostly used
for interior lighting calculation
- To determine the total number of luminaires required to produce a
given
illuminance by the lumen method we apply the following formula:

N -Total number of luminaires required to provide a chosen level of

illumination (E) at a given surface.

MF is maintenance or (the light loss LLF) factor; it is taken as 0.8 -0.9.

Utilization factor (UF) - the light flux reaching the working plane is always
less than the lumen output of the lamp since some of the light is absorbed
by the various surface textures (typ = 0.90 for office buildings)
 LIGHT SOURCES
Classification:
- incandescent
- discharge
- solid-state
 CLASSIFICATION OF LIGHT
SOURCES
• Incandescent lamps produce light by heating a
filament until it glows.
• Discharge lamps produce light by ionizing a
gas through electric discharge inside the lamp.
• Solid-state lamps use a phenomenon called
electroluminescence to convert electrical
energy directly to light.
Utilization Factor or Coefficient of
Utilization (η)
Depreciation Factor (p)
TOTAL LUMENS
It is proposed to illuminate an electronic workshop of dimensions 9 x 8 x 3 m
to an illuminance of 550 lx at the bench level. The specification calls for
luminaires having one 1500 mm 65 W fluorescent natural tube with an initial
output of 3700 lumens. Determine the number of luminaires required for this
installation when the UF and MF are 0.9 and 0.8, respectively.

Therefore 15 luminaires will be required to illuminate this workshop to

a level of 550 lx.
 Approximate Average
Light Source Comment Luminance (cd/m2)

Sun (as observed from Earth's surface) At meridian 1.6 x 109

Sun (as observed from Earth's surface) Near horizon 6 x 106
Moon (as observed from Earth's Bright spot 2.5 x 103
surface)
Clear sky Average luminance 8 x 103
Overcast sky -- 2 X 103
60-W inside frosted incandescent lamp -- 1.2 x 105
Tungsten-halogen lamp, 3000 K CCT -- 1.3 x 107
Tungsten-halogen lamp, 3400 K CCT -- 3.9 x 107
CFL 36-W twin tube 3 x 104
T-5 fluorescent lamp 14-35 W 2 x 104
T-8 fluorescent lamp 36-W 1 x 104
T-12 fluorescent lamp Cool white 800mA 1 x 104
High-pressure mercury lamp 1000-W 2 x 108
Xenon short arc lamp 1000-W 6 x 108
 Light Source Power (watts) Lamp Efficacy
(lumens/watt)
Standard incandescent filament 100 17
Linear tungsten-halogen 300 20
Fluorescent T-5, 4 ft 28 100
Fluorescent T-8, 4 ft 32 90
CFL 26 70
Mercury vapor 175 45
Metal-halide, low wattage 100 80
Metal-halide, high wattage 400 90
High-pressure mercury lamp 1000 50
Xenon short arc lamp 1000 30
High-pressure sodium, low wattage 70 90
High-pressure sodium, high wattage (diffuse) 250 100
Low-pressure sodium, U-type 180 180
 OBLIGATIONS & CONTRACTS
• The LAW of obligation & contract is a body of
rules which deals with the nature and sources
of obligations and the particular agreement/s.
PURPOSE OF THE LAW ON OBLIGATIONS &
CONTRACTS
• TO SECURE & PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF THE CONTRACTING
PARTIES SO THAT EACH MAY RELY ON THE PERFORMANCE OF
ANOTHER
• THE COURTS ARE CONCERNED THAT THE AGREEMENTS BE
TRUE BARGAINS & THAT THEY TRY TO FACILITATE IN
MEDIATING DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE CONTRACTING
PARTIES BY DECIDING & INTERPRETING THE MEANING OF THE
CONTRACT WHENEVER DOUBTS OR CONFLICTS ARISE
 OBLIGATION
• SOMETHING ONE IS BOUND TO DO OR
FORBEAR AN IMPERATIVE DUTY (AS IMPOSE
BY A PROMISE RELIGION, CONSCIENCE, IDEALS
OR SOCIAL STANDARDS)
• CONDITION OF BEING BOUND LEGALLY OR
ETHICALLY
 CLASSIFICATION OF OBLIGATION
• CIVIL OBLIGATION
– THIS REFERS TO THAT CONDITION OF BEING BOUND LEGALLY SO THAT THE
FAILURE OF PERSON TO PERFORM WHAT HE HAS BOUND HIMSELF TO DO WILL
MAKE HIM LIABLE TO THE OTHER PARTY ACCORDING TO THE LAW - LEGALLY
FORCEABLE
• NATURAL / MORAL OBLIGATION
– THIS REFERS TO THAT CONDITION OF BEING BOUND MORALLY OR ETHICALLY
WHEREIN A PERSON WHO BINDS HIMSELF TO PERFORM SOMETHING AND
FAILS TO DO IT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO THE OTHER PERSON LEGALLY BUT WILL
BE HELD ACCOUNTABLE ACCORDING TO THE NATURAL OR MORAL LAW.
 CIVIL OBLIGATION
• A CIVIL OBLIGATION IS A JURIDICAL NECESSITY TO GIVE, TO DO OR NOT TO
DO
• JURIDICAL NECESSITY REFERS TO THE SANCTION, THE RIGHTS & DUTIES
ARISING ARE LEGALLY FORCEABLE
• THE COURTS MAY BE CALLED UPON THROUGH PROPER ACTION
• DAMAGES REPRESENT THE SUM OF MONEY GIVEN AS COMPENSATION
FOR THE INJURY OR HARM SUFFERED BY THE CREDITOR FOR THE
VIOLATION OF HIS RIGHTS
• LIQUIDATED DAMAGES - THE AMOUNT AGREED UPON BY THE
CONTRACTING PARTIES
 ELEMENTS OF OBLIGATION
• JURIDICAL TIE OR • ACTIVE SUBJECT
VINALLUM – REFERRED TO AS THE CREDITOR
– THE LINK WHICH BINDS THE OR OBLIGEE; THE PERSON WHO
TWO PARTIES TOGETHER TO THE CAN DEMAND THE
OBLIGATION PERFORMANCE; THE PERSON
WHO HAS THE RIGHT
• PRESTATION
• PASSIVE SUBJECT
– IS THE SUBJECT MATTER OF AN
OBLIGATION; IT MAY CONSISTS – REFERRED TO AS THE DEBTOR;
OF GIVING SOMETHING, HAVING THE PERSON WHO MUST
OR NOT LOSING SOMETHING PERFORM THE OBLIGATION
 REQUISITES OF THE OBJECT OF THE
PRESTATION
• IT MUST BE POSSIBLE PHYSICALLY OR LEGALLY
• IT MUST BE DEFINITE OR DETERMINATE AS TO
ITS KIND
• IT MUST BE CAPABLE OF ESTIMATION
OBLIGATION ACCORDING TO SUBJECT
MATTER
• REAL OBLIGATION
– THE SUBJECT MATTER CONSISTS OF THE DELIVERY OF THE ITEM

• POSITIVE PERSONAL OBLIGATION

– THE SUBJECT MATTER CONSISTS OF DOING AN ACT OR SERVICE

• NEGATIVE PERSONAL OBLIGATION

– THE SUBJECT MATTER CONSISTS OF REFRAINING FROM DOING
SOMETHING
 OBLIGATIONS ACCORDING TO THE
NUMBER OF PARTIES
• UNILATERAL
– ONLY ONE PARTY IS • BILATERAL RECIPROCAL
BOUND TO FULFILL THE – THE PARTIES FULFILL THE
AGREEMENT AGREEMENT SIMULTANEOUSLY;
NO PERIOD IS AGREED UPON
• BILATERAL
– TWO PARTIES ARE • BILATERAL NON-
OBLIGED TO FULFILL THE RECIPROCAL
AGREEMENT – THE PERFORMANCE DOES NOT
HAVE TO BE SIMULTANEOUS
 SOURCES OF OBLIGATION

• LAW • QUASI-CONTRACT
– THE OBLIGATION IMPOSED BY THE – A JURIDICAL RELATION ARISING FROM
LAW LAWFUL, VOLUNTARY AND
UNILATERAL ACTS SO THAT NO ONE
• CRIMES, ACTS OR SHALL BE UNJUSTLY ENRICHED AT THE
EXPENSE OF THE OTHER
COMMISSIONS
PUNISHABLE BY LAW • CONTRACT
– THE MEETING OF MINDS
• QUASI-DELICT
– AN ACT OR COMMISSION CAUSING
BETWEEN TWO PERSONS
DAMAGE TO ANOTHER, THERE BEING
NEGLIGENCE
 CONTRACT
• THE MEETING OF MINDS BETWEEN TWO
PERSONS WHEREBY ONE BINDS HIMSELF
WITH RESPECT TO THE OTHER, TO GIVE
SOMETHING OR TO RENDER SERVICE
• IT IS ONE SOURCES OF OBLIGATIONS
 CONTRACT BASE ON NAME OR
DESIGNATION
• NOMINATE CONTRACTS
– THOSE WHICH HAVE SPECIFIC NAME IN THE LAW
• INNOMINATE CONTRACTS
– CONTRACTS IN WHICH NO SPECIFIC NAME IN THE
LAW AND GOVERNED BY THE STIPULATION OF
THE PARTIES
 STAGES IN THE LIFE OF A
CONTRACT

• PREPARATION / CONCEPTION
– INCLUDES ALL THE STEPS TAKEN BY THE PARTIES LEADING TO THE PERFECTION
OF THE CONTRACT; THE PARTIES HAVE NOT YET ARRIVED AT A DEFINITE
AGREEMENT AT THIS STAGE

• PERFECTION / BIRTH
– THE TIME WHEN THE PARTIES HAVE COME TO A DEFINITE AGREEMENT AND
THERE IS A MEETING OF MINDS

• CONSUMMATION / TERMINATION
– THE PARTIES HAVE PERFORMED THEIR RESPECTIVE OBLIGATIONS
 REQUISITES OF A CONTRACT
• CONSENT OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES
• OBJECT CERTAIN OR SUBJECT MATTER OF THE
CONTRACT
• CAUSE OF THE OBLIGATION WHICH IS
ESTABLISHED
 WHAT IS CONSENT
• THE CONFORMITY OF WILLS
• IT IS THE MEETING OF MINDS BETWEEN THE PARTIES
ON THE SUBJECT MATTER AND THE CAUSE WHICH IS
TO CONSTITUTE THE CONTRACT EVEN IF NEITHER
HAS BEEN DELIVERED
• IT IS THE AGREEMENT OF THE WILL OF ONE OF THE
CONTRACTING PARTY
 VOIDABLE CONTRACT
• THOSE WHICH POSSESS ALL THE REQUISITES BUT ONE OF THE
PARTIES IS INCAPABLE OF GIVING CONSENT OR CONSENT IS
INVALIDATED BY VIOLENCE, INTIMIDATION, UNDUE
INFLUENCE AND FRAUD
• THOSE WHOSE CAUSE OR OBJECT IS AGAINST THE LAW,
MORALS, GOOD CUSTOMES, PUBLIC ORDER OR PUBLIC
POLICY
 PERSONS WHO CANNOT GIVE
CONSENT
• UNEMANCIPATED MINORS
– THOSE WHO HAVE NOT REACH THE AGE OF MAJORITY (21 YEARS OLD). A
MINOR MAY BE EMANCIPATED BY MARRIAGE OR BY THE CONCESSION OF THE
FATHER OR MOTHER WHO EXERCISE PARENTAL AUTHORITY
• INSANE PERSONS
• DEAF MUTES WHO DO NOT KNOW HOW TO WRITE
• PERSONS SUFFERING THE PENALTY OF CIVIL INTERDICTION,
PRODIGALS
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VALID
CONSENT
• IT IS INTELLIGENT
• THERE IS A CAPACITY TO ACT
• IT IS FREE & VOLUNTARY
• IT IS CONSCIOUS & SPONTANEOUS NOT
INVALIDATED BY MISTAKE, UNDUE INFLUENCE
OR FRAUD
 OBJECTS OF CONTRACTS
• THINGS
• RIGHTS
• SERVICES
REQUISITES OF THINGS AS OBJECTS
• MUST BE WITHIN THE COMMERCE OF MEN
• MUST NOT BE IMPOSSIBLE, LEGALLY OR
PHYSICALLY
• MUST BE IN EXISTENCE OR CAPABALE OF
COMING INTO EXISTENCE
• MUST BE DETERMINATE
 WHAT IS CAUSE
• IT IS THE ESSENTIAL OR MORE PROXIMATE
PURPOSE OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES
• REQUISITES OF A VALID CAUSE
– IT MUST EXISTS AT THE TIME THE CONTRACT IS
ENTERED INTO
– IT MUST BE LAWFUL
– IT MUST BE TRUE OR REAL
 NATURE & EFFECT OF
OBLIGATIONS
• SPECIFIC OR DETERMINATE THING
– A THING WHICH CAN BE PHYSICALLY SEGREGATED OR
PARTICULARLY DESIGNATED FROM OTHERS IN ITS CLASS
• GENERIC / INDETERMINATE THING
– ONE WHICH REFERS ONLY TO A CLASS OR GENUS
 NATURE & EFFECT OF
OBLIGATIONS
• ACCESSIONS
– FRUITS OF THE THING OR IMPROVEMENTS UPON
A THING
• ACCESSORIES
– PERTAINS TO THE THINGS JOINED TO OR
INCLUDED WITH THE PRINCIPAL THING FOR THE
LATTER’S EMBELLISHEMENT, BETTER USE OR
PERFECTION
 CASES WHEREIN A DEBTOR IS LIABLE FOR THE NON-
FULFILLEMNT EVEN THOUGH IT IS DUE TO A FORTUITOUS EVENT

• GUILTY OF FRAUD, NEGLIGENCE, DELAY

• WHEN THE SAME THING IS PROMISED TO BE DELIVERED TO
TWO OR MORE PERSONS
• WHEN THE OBLIGATION TO DELIVER ARISES FROM A CRIME
• WHEN DECLARED BY STIPULATION OF THE PARTIES
• WHEN THE NATURE OF THE OBLIGATION REQUIRES THE
ASSUMPTION OF RISK
 REMEDIES AFFORDED THE CREDITOR IN CASE
THE DEBTOR FAILS
• THE CREDITOR MAY DEMAND THE
FULFILLMENT OF THE OBLIGATION
• IF IT CANNOT BE DELIVERED, THE OBLIGATION
IS EXTINGUISHED WITH THE CREDITOR
HAVING THE RIGHT TO INDEMNITY FOR
DAMAGES
 FRAUD
• THE DELIBERATE OR INTENTIONAL EVASION OF THE NORMAL
FULFILLMENT OF AN OBLIGATION
• KINDS OF:
– INCIDENTAL FRAUD (DOLO INDICENTE) - FRAUD
COMMITTED IN THE PERFORMANCE OF THE OBLIGATION
– CAUSAL FRAUD (DOLO CAUSANTE) - FRAUD ONE USES ON
ANOTHER TO OBTAIN HIS CONSENT IN A CONTRACT
 NEGLIGENCE
• THE FAILURE OF THE PERSON TO EXERCISE A
CERTAIN DEGREE OF DILIGENCE, CAUSE,
PRECAUTION AND VIGILANCE WHICH IS
REQUIRED BY THE NATURE OF THE
OBLIGATION TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE
CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE PERSONS, TIME &
PLACE
 PROFESSIONAL ETHICS
• CORRECT APPLICATIONS OF THE ACCEPTED
STANDARDS OF RIGHT OR WRONG GOVERNING THE
CONDUCT OF PROFESSIONAL MEN IN THE BUSINESS
RELATIONSHIPS PECULIAR TO THEIR EMPLOYMENT
• ETHICS IS A SET OF MORAL PRINCIPLES OR VALUES
TO GOVERN THE CONDUCT OF AN INDIVIDUAL
BELONGING TO A GROUP OR PROFESSION
 CODE OF ETHICS
HONESTY, JUSTICE & COURTESY FORM A MORAL PHILISOPHY WHICH
ASSOCIATED WITH MUTUAL INTEREST AMONG MEN CONSTITUTE THE
FOUNDATION OF ETHICS
THIS MUST BE OBSERVE NOT IN PASSIVE RECOGNITION BUT AS A SET OF
DYNAMIC STANDARDS TO GUIDE THE CONDUCT AND WAY OF LIFE. IT IS
OUR DUTY TO PRACTICE THE PROFESSION ACCORDING TO THIS CODE OF
ETHICS
THE KEYSTONE TO PROFESIONAL CONDUCT IS INTEGRITY. WE SHOULD
DISCHARGE OUR DUTIES WITH ABSOLUTE FIDELITY TO OUR CLIENTS AND
EMPLOYERS AND TO SET AT ALL TIMES WITH FAIRNESS AND
IMPARTIALLITY TO ALL HAVING DUE REGARD TO PUBLIC INTEREST
 CODE OF ETHICS
WE SHOULD SEEK TO UPHOLD THE DIGNITY OF OUR
PROFESSION AND THEREFORE AVOID ASSOCIATION
WITH ANY PERSON OR ENTERPRISE OF KNOWN
QUESTIONNABLE CHARACTER
IT IS OUR DUTY TO INVOLVE OURSELVES IN THE
WELFARE OF OUR COMMUNITY IN PARTICULAR AS
WELL AS THE MANKIND IN GENERAL
 FIVE AREAS OF ENGINEERING
RELATION
• HE IS AN AGENT OF HIS EMPLOYER OR • HE IS OBLIGED TO TREAT HIS
CLIENT AND DUTY BOUND TO DISCHARGE EMPLOYEES NOT AS CHATTELS BUT
HIS FUNCTIONS WITH UTMOST AS HUMAN BEINGS WHO DESERVE
CONFIDENCE, LOYALTY AND GOOD FAITH
DIGNITY AND RESPECT
• HE IS A CITIZEN OF THE REPUBLIC AND AS
SUCH IS DUTY BOUND TO EXERCISE HIS • HE IS BOUND TO TREAT
RIGHTS WITH DUE REGARD FOR THE CONTRACTORS WITH FAIRNESS AND
RIGHTS OF THE OTHERS (PUBLIC) JUSTICE
• HE IS DUTY BOUND TO TRUST HIS
BROTHERS IN THE PROFESSION WITH
MUTUAL CONSIDERATION AND RESPECT
 DUTIES TO CLIENTS & EMPLOYERS
• TO ENHANCE AND MAINTAIN THE DIGNITY OF THE ENGINEERING
PROFESSION
• TO ACT IN GOOD FAITH, UTMOST CONFIDENCE AND LOYALTY TO
EMPLOYERS
• TO PRESENT CLEARLY THE LIMITATIONS OF WORK FOR WHICH HE IS
RESPONSIBLE
• TO PRESERVE CLIENTS SECRETS
• TO REFRAIN FROM MOONLIGHTING
 DUTIES TO THE PUBLIC
• TO DISCOURAGE UNTRUE & UNFAIR STATEMENTS ON ENGINEERING
• TO PROTECT THE LIFE AND HEALTH OF THE PUBLIC AND EMPLOYEES
• TO REFRAIN FROM EXPRESSING PUBLIC OPINIONS WITHOUT FACTUAL
BASIS
• TO PARTICIPATE IN COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES
• TO DISSOCIATE FROM ENTERPRISES ORGANIZED FOR ILLICIT PURPOSE
 DUTIES TO HIS EMPLOYEES
• TO PROMOTE EMPLOYEES WELFARE
• TO COMMEND GOOD WORK AND
SUGGESTIONS
• TO BE FAIR IN GIVING PROMOTIONS
 DUTIES TO CONTRACTORS
• TO BE FAIR WITH CONTRACTORS
• TO BE FAIR WITH ALL BIDDERS
• TO PAY JUST COMPENSATION FOR
ADDITIONAL WORK NOT COVERED BY PLANS
& SPECIFICATIONS