“Discrete Structure”

Introduction To Discrete Structures

(Mathematics)
Assalam O Alaikum

Presentation Begins
Main Topics
1. What Is Discrete Structures (Mathematics)
2. Properties
3. Theoretical Computer Science
4. Information Theory
5. Logic
6. Set Theory
7. Combinatorics
8. Graph Theory
9. Probability
10. Number Theory
11. Algebra
12. Calculus Of Finite Differences, Discrete Calculus, Discrete Analysis
13. Topology
What Is Discrete Structures
(Mathematics)

 Discrete Structures or Mathematics concern processes that

consists of a sequence of individual steps.
 Discrete Structure is a set of discrete elements on which
certain operations are defined.
 Discrete Structures is the study of mathematical structures
that are fundamentally discrete rather than continuous.
 “Discrete Math” is not the name of branch of mathematics
like number theory, algebra, calculus etc.
 Discrete Structures are structures that are used in describing
discrete mathematics.
Properties

 Identity
 Domination
 Commutative
 Associative
 Distributive
 Negation
Theoretical Computer Science
Continued…….
 Theoretical computer science includes areas of
discrete mathematics relevant to computing.
 It draws heavily on graph theory and mathematical
logic.
 Theoretical computer science is the study of
algorithms and data structures.
 Theoretical Computer Science also includes the study
of various continuous computational topics.
 Whereas Complexity and Computability are there
parts.
 Information Theory

o Information theory involves the quantification of information.

o Closely related is coding theory which is used to design

efficient and reliable data transmission and storage methods.

o Information theory also includes continuous topics such as:

analog signals, analog coding, analog encryption.

o The ASCII code for the word “Wikipedia” is given here in

binary, providing a way of representing the word in
information theory as well as information theory alogrithms.
Graph Theory
 Graph theory, the study of graphs and
networks, is often considered part of
combinatorics, but has grown large enough
and distinct enough, with its own kind of
problems, to be regarded as a subject in its
own right.
 Graphs are one of the prime objects of study
in discrete mathematics.
 They can model many types of relations and
process dynamics in physical, biological and
social systems.
 In mathematics, they are useful in geometry
and certain parts of topology.
Graph Example Of Graph Theory
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Further Will Be Continued By Absar Malik
Logic
 Logic is the study of the principles of valid reasoning and
inference, as well as of consistency, soundness, and
completeness.

 Logic Formulas are discrete structures, as are proofs, which

form finite trees.

 The truth values of logical formulas usually form a finite set,

generally restricted to two values: true and false.
Converse, Contrapositive, Inverse

 Implication: P  Q

 Converse: Q  P

 Contrapositive: --,Q --,P

 Inverse: --,P  --,Q

Set Theory

 Set theory is the branch of mathematics that studies sets.

 They are collections of objects

 The (infinite) set of all prime numbers.

Combinatorics
 Combinatorics studies the way in which discrete structures
can be combined or arranged. (2 Types)

 Enumerative combinatorics concentrates on counting the

number of certain combinatorial objects.

 Analytic combinatorics concerns the enumeration (i.e.,

determining the number) of combinatorial structures using
tools from complex analysis and probability theory.
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Mehboob Riasat Channar
Probability

 Discrete probability theory deals with events that occur in

countable sample spaces.

 {0, 1, 2, ...} Sample Space Example.

 Discrete probability distributions can be used to approximate

continuous ones and vice versa.
Number Theory
 Number theory is concerned with the properties of numbers
in general, particularly integers.

 Has applications to cryptography and cryptanalysis.

 Particularly with regard to modular arithmetic, diophantine

equations, linear and quadratic congruences, prime numbers
and primality testing.
Algebra
 Algebraic structures occur as both discrete examples and
continuous examples.

 Discrete algebras include: boolean algebra used in logic gates

and programming; relational algebra used in databases.

 discrete and finite versions of groups, rings and fields are

important in algebraic coding theory; discrete semigroups
and monoids appear in the theory of formal languages.
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Further Will Be Continued By Zubair Zubii
Calculus Of Finite Differences

 A finite difference is a mathematical expression of the form f

− f. If a finite difference is divided by b − a, one gets a
difference quotient.

 The approximation of derivatives by finite differences plays a

central role in finite difference methods for the numerical
solution of differential equations, especially boundary value
problems.
Types of Finite differences:
Two types are commonly considered: forward, backward,l finite
differences:
• Forward Difference
Consider a linear interpolation between the current data value
(t0,I0) and the future data value (t1,I1). The slope of the secant line
between these two points approximates the derivative by
the forward (two-point) difference:
I'(t0) = (I1-I0) / (t1 - t0)
Forward differences are useful in solving ordinary differential
equations by single-step predictor-corrector methods (such as Euler
and Runge-Kutta methods). For instance, the forward difference
above predicts the value of I1 from the derivative I'(t0) and from
the value I0. If the data values are equally spaced with the step
size h, the truncation error of the forward difference approximation
has the order of O(h).
 • Backward difference
Consider a linear interpolation between the current data value
(t0,I0) and the past data value (t-1,I-1). The slope of the secant line
between these two points approximates the derivative by
the backward (two-point) difference:
I'(t0) = (I0-I-1) / (t0 - t-1)
Backward differences are useful for approximating the derivatives if
data in the future are not yet available. Moreover, data in the future
may depend on the derivatives approximated from the data in the
past (such as in control problems). If the data values are equally
spaced with the step size h, the truncation error of the backward
difference approximation has the order of O(h) (as bad as the
forward difference approximation).
Topology

 Meaning of Topology ?

 Topo mean: Surface and logy mean: Study

 Definition:

 The way in which part of something are arranged in related

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