Chapter 3

•Introduction,
•Maxwell’s equations,
•Solution in a inhomogeneous medium,
•Planar optical waveguide,
•TE modes of a symmetric step-index planar
waveguide,
•Power distribution and confinement factor.
1
 Introduction

• We have studied the propagation of light signals

through the optical fibers using the ray model.
• It has been realized that light is an electromagnetic
wave, that is, a wave consisting of time-varying,
mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic fields.
• Let us consider plane transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) waves travelling in free space as shown in
Figure 1.

2
Figure 1: Plane TEM wave

3
• The term ‘plane’ signifies that the waves are
polarized in one plane.
• In Figure 1, if the electric-field vector E changes its
magnitude in the x-direction but does not change its
orientation, i.e., remains in the x-z plane, we say that
E is x-polarized.
• Similarly, the magnetic field vector H is y-polarized.
• In general, the E and H fields need not be polarized
in the x and y directions.
• The term ‘transverse’ means that the vectors E and H
are always perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, which is the z-axis in the present case.

4
• Now, a ray is considered to be a pencil made of a
plane TEM wave, whose wavelength λ tends to be
zero.
• In general, this is not true, and hence the ray model
should be used with caution.
• So it is necessary to discuss electromagnetic wave
propagation through dielectric waveguides.
• The basis of such discussion is provided by
Maxwell’s equations.

5
 Maxwell’s Equations
These are a set of four equations given below:
B (1)
 E  
t
D (2)
 H  J 
t
.D   (3)
.B  0 (4)

6
Where the different terms are as follows:
• Bold characters are vectors and regular fonts are
scalars.
• E is the electric-field vector in V/m.
• D is the electric displacement vector in C/m2, it is
related to E by the formula D=εE, where ε is the
dielectric permittivity of the medium.
• H is the magnetic-field vector in A/m.
• B =µH, where µ is the magnetic permeability of the
medium.
• ρ is the charge density of the medium in C/m3.

7
• J is the current density in A/m2; it is related to E by
the formula J=σE, where σ is the conductivity of the
medium in A/Vm.
•  is the nabla operator defined as
 ^  ^ 
^
i  j k
x y z
^ ^ ^
• i , j , k being unit vectors along the x-,y- and z-axis,
respectively.
• µ=µ0µr, µ0=4π*10-7 N/A2(or H/m) is the permeability
of free space,

8
• and µr is the relative permeability of the material and
is very close to unity for most dielectrics.
• ε= ε0εr, ε0=8.854*10-12C/Nm2 is the permittivity of
free space, and ε0 is the relative permittivity of the
material.
• Inside an ideal dielectric material, free charge density
ρ=0 and σ=0.

9
• Therefore, Maxwell’s equations for a dielectric
medium modify to

B
 E   (5)
t
D
 H  (6)
t
.D  0
(7)
.B  0 (8)

10
• From Eqn (5)
B (  B)
    E    
t t
 (  H )   D 
      using Eqn (6)
t t  t 

2D (9)
  2
t
But     E   (.E )   2
E (10)
Where  2 is the Laplacian operator.

11
   
  2 2 2
2
x y z

And .E  .( D /  )  0 using Eqn (7) (11)

Therefore, from Eqns (9)-(11), we have

 2
D  2
(E )  2
E
  E   2  
2
   2
t t 2
t
 2
E
 E   2  0
2
(12)
t

12
  2
Similarly  2 H   H  0 (13)
t 2
We write ψ to represent any Cartesian component of E
(i.e., Ex, Ey and Ez) or H (i.e., Hx, Hy and Hz).
Then the vector wave equations (12 ) and (13) become a
set of scalar wave equations

 2

    2  0
2 (14)
t

13
• These are linear wave equations, which, in the
absence of boundary conditions, have solutions that
take the form of plane waves that propagate with a
phase velocity given by
1
vp 
 (15)

In vacuum or free space, εr=µr=1, so that

v p  1/  0 0  c  3 10 m / s
8

14
• For an isotropic medium, the refractive index n is
related to ε by the relation n   /  0   r with
µr =1 .
• Therefore, vp =c/n. Eqn (14) then becomes

1  2

  2 2 0
2
(16.a)
v p t

n 
2 2
or   2 2 0
2 (16.b)
c t

15
• The solution of this equation, as can be verified by
substituting, is of the form
   0 exp{i (t  z )}

• This represents a plane wave propagating in the

positive z-direction with a phase velocity vp=ω/β.
• Here ω is the angular frequency, β is the propagation
phase constant, and i=(-1)1/2.

16
 Solution in an Inhomogeneous Medium
• For an isotropic, linear, non-conducting, non-
magnetic, but inhomogeneous medium, the
divergence of the electric displacement vector
becomes
.D  .(E )   0.( r E )  0
  0 [( r ).E   r .E ]  0 (17)
which gives
 1
.E    ( r ).E
 r  (18)

17
From Eqn (9), we have
2D 2E
    E    2   0 0 r 2 (19)
t t

Since µ=µ0µr=µ0(µ0 being equal to 1)

And D=εE= ε0εrE
From Eqns (10 ) and (19),we get
 2
E
(.E )   E   0 0 r 2
2
t

18
Rearranging, we get

 2
E
 E  (.E )   0 0 r 2  0
2 (20)
t
Substituting for .E from Eqn (18) in Eqn (20), we get

 1   2
E
 E    ( r ).E   0 0 r 2  0
2
(21)
 r  t

19
• This shows that for an inhomogeneous medium, the
equations for the Cartesian components E, i.e., Ex, Ey
and Ez, are coupled.
• For a homogeneous medium, the second term on the
left-hand side of Eqn (21) will become zero (as .E  0
for a homogeneous medium).
• In that case, the Cartesian components of E will
satisfy the scalar wave equation by (16).

20
• An equation similar to Eqn (21) for H can be derived
as follows.
• Taking the curl of Eqn (6), we have
 D  
    H       (  D)
 t  t

 
 (  E )   0 (   r E ) (22)
t t

But     H  (.H )   2 H
From Eqn (8), .B  .( 0 H )  0
Therefore,     H   2 H (23)

21
From Eqns (22) and (23), we get

 H   0 (   r E )  0
2
t
or  2 H    [( )  E   (  E )]  0
t
0 r r

E 
or  H   0 ( r ) 
2
  0 r (  E )  0
t t

Employing Eqns (5) and (6) and rearranging, we get

1  2
H
 H  ( r )  (  H )  0 0 r 2  0 (24)
2
r t

22
Again we see that the equations for Cartesian
components of H, i.e., Hx, Hy and Hz, are coupled.
In order to simplify the Eqns (21) and (24), we set the z-
coordinate along the direction of propagation of the
wave represented by Eqns (21) and (24).
Assume that the refractive index n   r does not vary
with y and z. Then
 r  n 2  n 2 ( x) (25)
This means that the y- and z-direction of the fields, in
general, will be of the form e i (y  z ) .

23
• However, we may put γ=0 without any loss of
generality. Thus the equations governing the modes
of propagation of Ej or Hj, where j=x, y, or z, may be
written as follows:
j (t  z )
E j  E j ( x )e (26)
j (t  z )
H j  H j ( x )e
(27)
Where Ej(x) and Hj(x) are the transverse field
distributions that do not change as the field
propagates through the medium, ω is the angular
frequency, and β is the propagation constant.

24
Now lets us write Maxwell’s equations (5) and (6) in
Cartesian coordinates.
From Eqn (5), i.e.,

B H
  E     0
t t
We get
 Ez E y  ^  Ex Ez  ^  E y Ex 
^
i    j    k  
 y z   z x   x y 

 ^ 
 ^ ^
  0 {i H x  j H y  kH z }

 t  (28)
 
25
And from Eqn (6), i.e.,
D E 2 E
 H    0 r   0n
t t t
We get
^
 H z H y  ^  H x H z  ^  H y H x 
i    j    k  
 y z   z x   x y 

 ^ ^ ^
  0 n {i Ex  j E y  kEz }
2
t (29)

26
• As the fields E and H do not vary with y, all the / y
terms may be set equal to zero.
• Substituting the values of Ej and Hj from Eqns (26)
and (27), into eqn (28)we get
^
 i ( t   z )
^
 i ( t   z )
^

 i {E y e }  j {E x e }  j { E z e i ( t   z ) }
z z x
^

 k { E y e i ( t   z ) }
x

^
 i (t  z )
^
 i (t  z )
^

  i 0 H x e  j 0 H y e  k 0 H z ei (t z )
t t t

27
 ^ E
^
 ^
E 
Or i (i ) E  j iE  z  k y
y  x x  x
^ ^ ^
 i 0 (i ) H x  j 0 (i ) H y  k 0 (i ) H z
Comparing the corresponding components on both
sides, we get the following set of equations:
iE y  i 0 H x

Or E y   0H x (30.a)
Ez
iEx   i0H y
x (30.b)

28
 E y
 i0H z (30.c)
x
Now substituting the values of Ej and Hj from Eqns (26)
and (27) into eqn (29) and setting to zero all the terms
containing  / y ,we get
^
 i (t  z )
^
 i (t  z )  i (t  z ) 
 i {H y e }  j {H x e }  {H z e }
z z  x 
^

 k {H y ei (t z ) }
x
 ^
i (t  z )
^
 i (t  z )
^

  0n i {Exe
2
}   0n j {E y e
2
  0n k Ez ei (t z )
2
t t t

29
Or ^ ^
 H z  ^ H y
i (i ) H y  j  iH x  k
 x  x
^ ^ ^
  i (i 0 n 2 ) Ex  j (i 0 n 2 ) E y  k (i 0 n 2 ) Ez
Comparing the respective components, we get

iH y  i 0n2 Ex

H y   0n Ex 2 (31.a)

H z
 iH x   i 0n 2 E y (31.b)
x
H y (31.c) where n2=n2(x).
 i 0n 2 Ez
x
30
These six equations (30.a-30.c) and (31.a-31.c) form
two independent sets.
Thus, Eqns (30.a). (30.c) and (31.b) involve Ey, Hx and
Hz.
Herein the field components Ex, Ez and Hy are zero.
The modes described by these equations are called
transverse electric (TE) modes because the electric
field has only the transverse component Ey.

31
These equations are as follows:
E y   0H x (32)

E y
 i0H z (33) TE modes
x
H z
 iH x   i 0n 2 ( x) E y (34)
x

32
The second set of equations is formed by Eqns (31.a),
(31.b) and (30.b), which involve only Hy, Ex and Ez,
and the field components Ey, Hx and Hz are zero.
These are called transverse magnetic (TM) modes
because the magnetic field herein has only a
transverse component Hy.

33
These equations are as follows:
H y   0n ( x) Ex
2 (35)

H y
 i 0n ( x) Ez
2
(36) TM modes
x
Ez
iEx   i0H y (37)
x

34
 Planar Optical Waveguide
• Planar optical waveguides are important components
in integrated optical devices.
• The modal analysis of such waveguides is easier to
understand.
• The simplest optical waveguide may have the
geometric configuration as shown in Figure 2.
• It consists of a thin dielectric slab of refractive index
n1 and thickness 2a sandwiched between two
symmetrical dielectric slabs of refractive index n2
and infinite thickness (n2<n1).

35
Figure 2: Structure of a planar optical waveguide

36
• The waveguide is oriented such that the wave
propagates along the z-direction.
• The y and z dimensions of the guide are assumed to
extend to infinity.
• The thickness of the slabs is along the x-direction (as
shown in Figure).
• A ray of light launched into the guide slab or layer
would progress by multiple reflections as shown in
Figure 3.
• We may assume that such a ray represents a plane
TEM wave travelling at an angle θ with the z-axis.

37
Figure 3: Ray propagation in a planar waveguide

38
• As the refractive index within the guide layer is n1,
the wavelength of light in the layer is reduced to
λm=λ/n1, where λ is the wavelength of light in vacuum
and the propagation constant is increased to
2 2n1
1    kn1
m 
where k=2π/λ is the vacuum propagation constant or the
propagation vector.
• If the propagation vector β1 makes an angle θ with the
z-axis(which is same as the guide axis), the plane
wave may be resolved into two component plane
waves propagating in the z-direction and x-directions.

39
• The component of the propagation vector in the z-
direction or, in other words, the effective propagation
constant of the guided wave (along the z-direction)
will be
   z  1 cos  (38)
• The limiting value of θ, i.e., θm is related to the
critical angle φc at the interface of the guide layer and
the cladding slabs is given by
sin c  cos  m  n2 / n1 (39)
• Thus the minimum value of β in the z-direction, i.e.,
βmin, will be determined by the maximum value of θ,
i.e., θm or
40
 n2
 min  1 cos  m  1   2 (40)
n1
The maximum value that β can have is β1, which
corresponds to θ=0,i.e., the plane TEM waves
travelling parallel to the guide axis;  max  1 .
We, therefore, expect β to lie between β1 and β2 , or β2
<β< β1 .
The component of the propagation vector β1 in the x-
direction is
 x  1 sin   n1k sin 
where k=2π/λ
or 2 (41)
  sin 
x
m
41
• This component of the plane wave is reflected at the
interface between the guide layer and the cladding
slabs.
• When the total phase change after two successive
reflections at the upper and lower interface is equal to
2iπ radians, where i is an integer (0,1,2,3…),
constructive interference will occur and a standing-
wave patterns will be formed in the x-direction.
• This stable field patterns in the x-direction with only a
periodic z-dependence in known as a mode.
• Thus, only a finite number of discrete modes which
satisfy the above condition will propagate through the
guide, i.e., 4aβx= 2iπ.
42
Or 4a sin i  im (42)
Each value of θi corresponds to a particular mode with
its own characteristic field pattern and its own
propagation constant βi in the z-direction.
βi lies between β1 and β2.
Since the maximum value that θi can take is θm ,the
number of guided modes is limited to

4a sin  m 4an1 sin  m 4a

M  imax    (n12  n22 )1/ 2 (43)
m  

43
• The requirement for the ith mode to be propagated is
that i  4a /  (n12  n22 )1 / 2 .
• The mode corresponding to the highest value of i, i.e.,
imax, does not meet the condition for total internal
reflection, as the value of θm corresponds exactly to
the critical angle φc, and is refracted at the interface.
• It can propagate freely in the cladding slabs and is
said to be a radiation mode.

44
Q1: A symmetric step-index(SI) planar waveguide is
made of glass with n1=1.5 and n2=1.49. the thickness
of the guide layer is 9.83µm and the guide is excited
by a source of wavelength λ=0.85µm. What is the
range of the propagation constants? What is the
maximum number of modes supported by the guide?

45
46
 TE modes of a Symmetric Step-Index
Planar Waveguide

• For the symmetric waveguide structure shown in

Figure 2, n2(-x)=n2(x).
• Further, the structure is step-index type, as the guide
layer has a refractive index n1 and the cladding slabs
have the refractive index n2.
• Both n1 and n2 are constant and n1>n2.
• Let us first discuss TE modes.

47
Substituting the values of Hx and Hz from eqns (32) and
(33) into (34), we get
     1  E y
 i   Ey     i 0n 2 ( x) E y
 0  x   i0  x

Since Ey=Ey(x), the partial derivative involving Ey may

as well be written as a full derivative.
Thus, rearranging the above equation, we may write
d 2Ey
2
  E y  0 0 n ( x) E y  0
2 2 2
dx

48
 d 2Ey
2
 [ k n ( x )   ]E y  0
2 2 2
(44)
dx
As 00  1/ c 2 and  / c  k
In the waveguide of Figure (2)
n(x) = n1 for |x|<a
n2 for |x|>a (45)
Further, Ey and Hz (and hence E y / x )are continuous at
x  a,because Ey and Hz are tangential components to
the planes represented by x  a and Hz is
proportional to E y / x .

49
Substituting for n(x) from eqn (45) in eqn (44), we get
in the guide layer
d 2 Ey
2
 [k n1   ]E y  0(| x | a)
2 2 2
(46)
dx
And in the cladding layer
d 2 Ey
2
 [ k 2 2
n2   2
]E y  0(| x | a) (47)
dx

Let us put u 2  k 2 n12   2  12   2 (48)

w2   2  k 2 n22   2   22 (49)

50
Thus eqns (46) and (47) take the forms

d 2 Ey
2
 u 2
E y  0(| x | a) (50)
dx
2
d Ey (51)
 w2 E y  0(| x | a)
dx 2
For the wave to be guided through the layer, both
parameters u and w must be real. This implies that
12 ( k 2 n12 )   2   22 ( k 2 n22 ) (52)

51
With these conditions, the solutions in the guide layer
are oscillatory, while those in the cladding layers
decay exponentially.
This is what is exactly required.
Thus, for a guided-wave solution, the propagation
constant β must lie between β1 and β2.
The same interference was drawn from ray analysis.

52
Since the refractive index n(x) is symmetrically
distributed about x=0, the solutions are either
symmetric or antisymmetric functions of x.
Therefore, we must have
E y ( x)  E y ( x) symmetric modes (53)
E y ( x)   E y ( x) antisymmetric modes (54)

For symmetric modes, the electric-field distribution

takes the form

53
 A cos ux, |x|<a (55)
Ey(x)= C exp(-w|x|), |x|>a (56)

Where A and C are constants.

The continuity of Ey(x) and dEy/dx at x = ±a gives the
following equations:
A cos (ua) =Ce-wa (57)
And -uA sin(ua)=-wCe-wa (58)

Dividing eqn (58) by (57), we get

u tan(ua)=w
Or ua tan(ua)=wa (59)
54
• Now we define a new dimensionless waveguide
parameter called the normalized frequency parameter
V.
• From eqns (48)and (49), we have
u 2  w2  k 2 n12   2   2  k 2 n22  k 2 (n12  n22 )1/ 2

Or (ua) 2  ( wa ) 2  k 2 a 2 (n12  n22 )   2  a 2 (n12  n22 )

2

  
Thus V is defined as
2a
V  (ua)  ( wa )
2

2 1/ 2
 (n12  n22 )1/ 2
 (60)

55
• In terms of V, eqn (59) may be written as
ua tan(ua)  V  (ua)
2

2 1/ 2 (61)

For antisymmetric modes, the solution takes the form

E y ( x)  B sin ux, | x | a (62)

x
 D exp, ( w | x |), | x | a (63)
| x|

where B and D are constants.

Following exactly the same procedure, we get
-ua cot (ua)=wa (64)
56
Or in terms of the parameter V, we have
-ua cot (ua)={V2-(ua)2}1/2 (65)
In order to solve the transcendental eqns (59) and (64)
in Figure (4), we plot ua as a function of wa for
uatan(ua)=wa (bold solid lines) ans –uacot(ua)=wa
(dashed lines).
Eqn (60), i.e., V2={(ua)2+(wa)}2= constant, is plotted as
arcs of circle for constant V-values (lightface solid
lines).
The point of intersection of the bold solid and dashed
lines with the arc of the circle of radius V determine
the propagation constants for the waveguide
corresponding to the symmetric and asymmetric
modes, respectively.
57
• The values of ua and wa for different V-values
corresponding to different modes are shown in Figure 4.
• From the figure, we can derive the following
information:
(1) For 0  V   / 2 (i.e., for an arc of a circle of radius
corresponding to V<π/2), there is only one intersection
with the bold solid curves marked m=0. This is the
only solution for the guided TE mode. That is, the
waveguide supports only one discrete TE mode and
this mode is symmetric in x.

58
(2) For  / 2  V   (i.e., for an arc of a circle of radius
corresponding to π/2<V<π), the arc intersects at two
points; one on the bold solid line m=0 and the other on
the dashed line m=1. thus we have two TE modes, one
symmetric and the other antisymmetric. In general, if
 
( 2 m)  V  (2m  1)
2 2
we will have m+1 symmetric and m+1 antisymmetric
modes, where m=0,1,2…; m=0,2,4…. correspond to
symmetric modes and m=1,3,5….correspond to
antisymmetric modes. The maximum number of TE
modes, M, supported by the guide would be an integer
close to or greater than 2V/π. This is an agreement with
eqn (43),which was obtained on the basis of ray model.
59
60
(3) An interesting point to be noted in Figure 4 is that
for the fundamental mode (m=0), ua always lies
between 0 and π/2 and the corresponding electric
field Ey(x) for |x|<a will have no zeros.
For the next mode (m=1), which is antisymmetric in x,
ua lies between π/2 and π and the corresponding field
distribution has one zero (at x=0).
The analysis may be extended to prove that the electric-
field distribution Ey(x) for the mth mode will have m
zeros between x=-a and x=+a.
The mode patterns for the first few modes are shown in
Figure 5.

61
Figure 5: Field distribution for the first three TE modes (m=0,1 and 2) of a planar waveguide.
62
There are a few more points about these modes:
(1) A relevant parameter is the normalized propagation
constant denoted by b. It is defined by the following
equation:
 
2 2
 ua   wa 
2 2
b 2  1     
2
1   2
2 V   V  (68)

For a given guided mode, the value of b lies between 0

and 1.
The variation of b with V for first few modes is shown
in Figure 6.

63
Figure 6: Variation of the normalized propagation parameter b for TE modes witht he normalized
frequency V for a planar waveguide.
64
When β becomes equal to β2, b = 0 and the mode is said to
have reached the ‘cut-off’. Thus, at cut-off, ua = V = Vc
and wa = 0. this occurs at
m
ua  Vc 
2 (69)
Since form eqn (60)
2a 2
V (n1  n22 )1/ 2

Equating (60) and (69), we obtain the thickness of the guide
layer necessary to support m modes:

65
 m 2a 2
 (n1  n22 )1/ 2
2 
m
2a  (70)
2(n1  n2 )
2 2 1/ 2

where m = 0,1,2…. The fundamental mode has no cut off

frequency.
(2) The modes for which  2
  2
2 are called radiation modes.
These are continuous. In terms of the ray model, these
correspond to the rays for which total internal reflection
does not occur, and get refracted into cladding.

66
(3) All the modes are orthogonal. If the field Ey(x)
corresponding to a guided mode with a propagation
constant βm is represented by ψm(x) and its complex
conjugate by ψ*m(x), then it can be shown that

  ( x) m ( x)dx  0 for m  n
*
 m

This is known as the condition of orthogonality.

Having determined the electric-field distribution Ey(x),
it is possible to calculate the Hx and Hz components of
the magnetic field by substituting the value Ey in eqn
(32) and E y / x on eqn (33).

67
 Power distribution and confinement factor
In Figure 5, we have seen that the electric-field distribution
of the guided modes extends beyond the boundary of the
guide layer (i.e. cladding), and the extent of penetration
into the cladding layer depends on the thickness and the
mode number.
It is important to know, in many situations, the fraction of
guided optical power confined within the guide layer.
This fraction is called the confinement factor.

68
 Poynting vector ( S)
The power flow is given by Poynting vector defined by
S  EH
where E and H are normally expressed in the complex form.
(Poynting vector represents the directional energy flux density (the rate
of energy transfer per unit area) of an electromagnetic field.
The SI unit of the Poynting vector is the watt per square metre
(W/m2))
S  Re E  Re H S

The actual fields are the real part of the complex form ( e.g a+ib). Thus,
taking the time average of the Poynting vector, we get
1
 Re E  H *
2

Where H* (a-ib) is the complex conjugate of H (a+ib).

69
Thus the time average of S along the z-direction will be given
by
(71)
1
S z  Re ( Ex H y  H x E y )
2
We have seen that, for TE modes, the field components Ex and
Ez vanish and

Hx   Ey
0
Therefore,
1 
Sz  E y2
2 0 (72)

70
For a particular mode, the power associated per unit
area per unit length in the y-direction will thus be
given by

1  
P E 2
x  y dx (73)
2 0

The power inside the guide layer will be given by

1  a 2
Pin  a E y dx (74)
2 0
*check the limit

71
72
And the power outside the guide layer will be given by
1   a 2 

Pout    
2
E dx E dx

2 0   y a y  (75)
For symmetric TE modes, substituting for Ey from eqn (55),
we get
1   2 a1
Pin  20 ( A cos ux) dx 
a 2 A 0 (1  cos 2ux)dx
2 0 0 2

73
 
a
A  x  sin 2ux
2
Or 1
Pin 
2 0  2u 0
 2 1 
 A a  sin 2ua 
20  2u  (76)
Substituting the value of Ey from eqn (56) , we get
1  
Pout  2a (Ce wx ) 2 dx
2 0

 2  1  wx 
 C  e 
0  2 w a
 2  1 2 wa 
 C  e  (77)
0  2w
74
From eqn (76) and (77), we can derive the final
expression for P as follows:
P=Pin +Pout

 2 1   2  1 2 wa 
 A a  sin 2ua   C  e 
2 0  2u  0  2 w

  A2 1  C  1 2 wa 
2
 a  sin 2ua    e 
 20 2u  A w 
Putting the value of C/A=ewacosua from eqn (57), we
get

75
  A2  1 1 
P  a  sin 2ua  cos ua 
2
2 0  2u w 

 A2  2 2 sin( ua) cos( ua) 2 sin 2 ua 

P  2a   
40  w u w 

 A2  2 2 sin( ua) cos( ua) 

 ( 2 a  )  {wa  ua tan ua}
4 0  w uwa 

76
From eqn (59), the term within the braces becomes zero.
This gives the following expression for P:
 A2  1
P a  
4 0  w
A similar expression may be derived for power carried
by antisymmetric modes.
The fraction of power confined within the guide layer,
called the confinement factor G, may be calculated as
follows:
Pin
G
Pin  Pout

77
 1
a  sin 2ua
 2u
2
a  1 sin 2ua    1 e 2 wa  C 
 2u   w  A 

Putting the value of C/A= C/A=ewacosua from eqn

(57), in eqn (80), we get

1
a  sin 2ua
 2u
a  1 sin 2ua    1 e 2 wa  e wa cos ua 2
 2u   w 
78
 1
 a  1 sin 2ua  1 cos 2 ua 
 2u w 
 
1
 a  sin 2ua 
 2u 

1
 2
cos ua 
 1  
 wa{1  [sin( ua ) cos( ua )] / ua 

79
Important points from above equation:
(1) As a0, G0; that is, for a very thin guide layer,
there is no guidance light. Rather, almost all the
power is lost in cladding.
(2) As the G-factor depends on u and w and both these
parameters in turn depend on m, G will vary with
the mode number.
(3) It can be shown that G increases, first rapidly and
then slowly, with the increase in the thickness of the
guide layer for each mode.

80