Sociological Perspectives

• Sociology
• Culture
• Socialization
• Social Interaction
• Groups and Organization
• Deviance
• Social Stratification
• Global Inequality
• Race Ethnicity
• Sex and Gender
• Economics and Politics
• Family and Religion
• Education and Medicine
• Population and Urbanization
• Social Change and Modernity
• References
1. Shepard, J.M. (1999). Sociology (7th Edition).
Wadsworth, California.
2. Macionis, J.J. Society (1998). The Basics (4th
Edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
3. Schaefer, R.T.& Lamm R.P. (1998). Sociology 6th
Edition. New York: McGraw Hill
4. Michael Haralambos, Frances Smith, James
O’Gorman and Robin Heald (1986). Sociology a new
approach 2nd Edition. Lancashire: Causeway Books
 Objectives
• Introduction to the discipline of sociology
• To expose the various theories of sociology
• To provide an opportunity to use knowledge on
sociology and relate them to personal lives,
social problems and social issues. Understand
social action and interaction
• To study the societies or communities in the
global village
• To realize the interdependence of countries
 such as economic globalization
To open our eyes to the social forces not existing
in our society and make us understand our lives
better. To go beyond personal experiences and
observations to understand certain issues.
• Used for 3 main purposes
• Knowledge or intellectual exercise
• As a guide whereby one learns to understand
one’s life and society, participate actively,
evaluate critically and appreciate the diversity
 in one’s society
• Sociology enriches our lives when pursuing
career as to the action to be taken to fight crime,
improve education system, eradicate poverty,
solve social problems etc.
• Sociology
Scientific study of society and human behaviour
in contrast to natural sciences which is on nature
• Perspective
-A view of the world where people’s experiences
determines their behaviour
-a way of looking at and seeing or interpreting
something
-Social forces (social situations) shape
individuals lives
• Three primary theoretical frameworks namely:
Symbolic interactionism
-A view of society that focuses on the ways of how
people act towards or respond to each other (micro
level)
-Society as the product of everyday interactions between
individuals
Functional analysis
As society comprising various parts and if working hand
in hand, would result in or maintain social stability
(macro level)
• Conflict theory
-sees society as an arena of inequality that
generates conflict and change.
-Emphasize that social life based on tension,
inequality competitive struggle to gain control
on scarce resources (macro level)
-Main example – inequality between man and
woman
• Sociological Perspective
• Level of Analysis / Focus
• Symbolic Interactionism –Micro -Use of symbols,
face to face interaction
• Functionalism –Macro -Interaction between the
parts of society. How the various parts of society
perform their functions
• Conflict – Macro -Competition for scarce
resources. The powerful controls the weak
• Origins of Sociology
-From ancient times human behaviour observed by
philosophers, writers. Thus the origin of moral codes.
-Greek philosophers-Socrates, Plato, Aristotle
discussed social issues without systematic
observations. More of speculations than realities
-Sociology greatly influenced by 3 revolutions namely
French Revolution – existing political system
overthrown. Encouraged people to rethink about
 their social life.
-Industrial Revolution – traditional way of life
disrupted and affected with rapid economic and
social change. European conquest of new
territories, exposure to new cultures
-Scientific Revolution – advances in traditional
sciences used by European social philosophers
to develop new ways of understanding human
world. Applied scientific methods to find answers
about the social world
• Early sociologists
-Auguste Comte
-Herbert Spencer
-Karl Marx
-Emile Durkheim
-Max Weber
-Harriet Martineau
Early History
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
-Regarded as the father of Sociology. Coined the
the expression “sociology” to refer to the scientific
study of sociology
-In favour of the use of positivism (philosophical
system or history of philosophy) that is applying
scientific approach to the social world or study society
-Scientific approach would ensure a better
understanding of human behaviour and
thus able to predict and control human
action.

-Scientific knowledge based on facts and evidence

to solve problems needed not speculation and
superstition which are characteristics of the
religious and metaphysical stages of social
development.
- Science of sociology consists of 2
branches namely
social dynamics-processes by which
societies change
social statics-the study of processes
by which societies endure
-Founder of structural-functional approch
-Tried to reconcile science, religion and the ideals
of 1789 Revolution with the doctrine of counter
revolution
-Greatly influenced by “ideologues” (Comte de
Volney,Georges Cabanis), political economists (Adam
Smith, J.B. Say), historians (William Robertson, David
Hume) and philosophers (Marquis de Condorcet,
Giambattista Vico, Edward Gibbon)
-Felt the necessity for each science to develop own
methodology. Such development came with the
progress of the human mind.
• Emile Durkheim
-Played an important role in the
development of sociology.
-Wanted sociology to be recognized as a
separate academic discipline
-Interested in understanding social factors
(patterns of behaviour) which influence
individual behaviour
Sociologists should not only be
concerned with the causes of social
problems but should also develop solutions
to such problems.
-Society to be understood within a larger
social context
-Society is held together with shared values,
customs. Members become interdependent
-Developed the functionalist approach–the
function of society to the individual
-Various parts of society interrelated. Together
they form a system.
-To study society as a whole, parts of the society
and their contributions need to be understood
first.
-Functional prerequisites are basic needs needed
by the society in order to survive
 -For a society to work hand in hand to achieve unity
and integration, understanding each other’s norms
and values (value/social consensus) is important
-For a peaceful and stable social system, peace,
order and stability are necessary.
- Society is inherited. Society shapes personalities
and individuals
• Social consensus (general or widespread
agreement among all the members of a group)
takes 2 forms:
• Mechanical solidarity that arises when people maintain
similar values and beliefs (shared moral values) and
engage in similar type of work. Occurs in traditional
simple societies / preindustrial societies
• Organic solidarity where people in a society are
interdependent, specialized but with their own values
and beliefs and engage in different types of work. Can
be found in industrialized complex societies. Society
changes because of an expanding div. of labour.
• American functionalists divided human functions
into 2 types namely:
-Manifest functions – intentional and obvious /
recognised and intended consequences of any
social pattern
-Latent functions – unrecognised and unintentional .
Consideration of the relationship between the functions
of smaller parts and the functions of the whole.
• Functionalism does not encourage people to play an
active role in changing their social environment which
might bring positive effects.
• A/c to functionalists active social change is
undesirable and regarded as disruptive. The
various parts of the society will compensate
naturally for any problems that may arise.
• Herbert Spencer
-Society as evolutionary. Coined the term “survival of the
fittest”
-No one should interfere in the evolution of society
-Society regarded as a living organism, independent but
still inter-related. Changes in society affects every part of
society which has got its own function which in turn
contributes to the survival and existence of the whole
system
-Society left alone will overcome its own problems. Will
find ways to solve it
-The fittest – the rich, powerful and successful will
emerge. Nature has selected them. Nature has also
doomed the unfit, the poor, weak, and unsuccessful to
failure.
-Nature of Social Evolution namely movement from
simple to various levels of compound or complex
societies namely:
<simple families
<compound families organized into
clans
<still bigger compound families
organized into tribes
<complex families/tribes into nations
• If certain parts of society malfunctions, the other
must adjust to the crisis and contribute more to
preserve society. E.g of parts of society family,
education, government, industry, religion
• The society will correct its own defects through
the natural process of “survival of the fittest.”
The societal organism will work itself towards
balance and stability.
• The fittest will emerge – the rich, powerful and
successful
• The unfit – the poor, weak, and unsuccessful will
experience failure
• This is the natural order of society
• Spencer’s ideas were opposed by Karl
Marx (a German political philosopher and
economist)
• Marx argued that there was no
interdependence and stability but only
class conflict and competition were the
products.
-With evolution, size, structure changes.
Differences in power, occupations and finally functions
- Resources used to improve the state
- Balance of energy between groups, classes, societies

- Then there will be this struggle for existence leading to

conflict
- Conflict leads to 2 fears namely fear of the living leading
to political control and fear of the dead leading to
religious control
• Max Weber
-Believed that people must inquire into people’s
thoughts, feelings and perceptions regarding their
own behaviours (verstehen or sympathetic
understanding) thus allowing an interpretive
understanding of the individual’s behaviour
• Karl Marx
• Ideals about social classes and class struggle
between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat laid
the foundation to the conflict perspective.
• Views society as a struggle for resources and
power
• Class conflict key to human history and
determines social change.
• Active steps to be taken to change society.
Change regarded as inevitable. Beneficial and
can be violent. Workers are not selectively unfit
but destined to overthrow the capitalists. Mass
revolution will be the product leading to a class-
free society where people work according to
their abilities and receive according to their
needs.
• Believe rich and powerful people force social
order on the poor and weak.
• American sociologists expanded Marx’s theory
that conflict in society strictly economics. Now a
new conflict, social conflict where many kinds of
inequality exists such as race, gender, religious,
political with conflicting values. This leads to
competition and thus to the ever-changing
nature of society
• Economics and not natural selection determines
the differences between bourgeoisie and the
proletariat
• Society’s economic system decides people’s
norms, values, mores and religious beliefs,
political, governmental and educational systems.
• People should take an active role in changing
society than simply trusting it to evolve positively
on its own.
• Marx compasionate towards poor people.
Wanted a new and just social order where
everyone would be equal.
• False consciousness – social problems
shortcomings of the individual rather than
the fauls of society
• Class conflict – conflict between entire
classes over distribution of a society’s
wealth and power
• Class consciousness – workers together
to be unified in opposition to capitalists
and finally towards capitalism –remake
society. Alternative will be socialism where
social needs of all people will be met.
Class conflict will end