BUILDING SERVICES

Design of Water supply network in domestic

Building with Architectural Approach.
 The Basic case
Like many cities in developing countries,
Bissau City (W.Africa) faces water and
sanitation problems in squatter areas. A
neighbourhood upgrading programme
realises new tap stands, new latrines and new
drainage gutters.

poor sanitation new watertaps new pour-flush latrines

 Learning from a case
1. New taps not reliable (power failures). Thus
people turn to old wells that pose higher health
risks (latrines too close, clean rainwater
efficiently drained away).
 Plans for flows must fit together.
2. Improved drainage in neighborhoods
leads to erosion in the urban fringe.
 Plans for areas must fit
together. 3. Construction work
performed well but manage- ment and
maintenance fail.
 Plans for actors must fit together.
 in addition to efficiency, there is a group of criteria called
fit. They have to be specified for flows and areas and actors.
 Specifying ‘fit’ criteria for local plans
General criteria for sustainable plans
PLANET PEOPLE PROSPERITY
(ecological) (social) (economic)
sustainable is:
- sound use - participation - profit and
Specific criteria for
and - fair sharing development
the local plan liveability - gender

FLOWS guiding
 which flows? How to make a principles
choices made? sustainable water
AREAS plan?
 which areas?
choices made?
ACTORS
guiding
 which actors,
choices made? models
 Working with ‘fit’ criteria

Analysis • First, an analysis should provide the relevant

information: > Which flows ? (e.g. rainwater,
groundwater, drinking water, waste water,
solid waste, energy) > Which areas ? (e.g.
houses. yards, streets, neighbourhoods, urban
fringe) > Which actors? (e.g. women,
families, shopkeepers, agencies, NGOs).
Discussion • Secondly, alternative plans (combinations of
technologies, policies and spatial plans) can
be discussed using general criteria for
sustainable plans and specific arguments from
the local context.
 The planning cycle
EVALUATION ORIENTATION
initiative

GUIDING PRINCIPLES
use
maintenance starting
efficiency document

realization
ANALYSIS
> flows
detailed > areas
design > actors
fit EXAMPLES

strategic GUIDING MODELS

plan

Fit and efficiency in the planning cycle

Criteria in the planning cycle
• The strategic stage of the planning cycle (from
initiative to strategic plan) focuses on
sharing the understanding of the problem,
sharing the general approach and sharing the
responsibility for solutions. ‘Fit’ criteria usually
dominate the process.
Criteria in the planning cycle
• The operational stage of the planning cycle
(from strategic plan to realization and use)
focuses on specifying concrete solutions,
specifying the funding, the contracts and the
organization of construction and maintenance.
‘Efficiency’ criteria usually dominate the
process.
 Environmentally Sound Technologies
in the Urban Water Cycle
storage &
augmentation

reuse,recycle supply &

& disposal distribution

use &
saving

every drop counts 3. ESTs Intro

[Sourcebook
Chapter 4.2] Storage and augmentation ESTs

1. Ponds and Reservoirs

2. Artificial recharge of Groundwater
3. Water Tanks
4. Rainwater runoff in surface water
5. Rainwater runoff in groundwater
6. Rainwater runoff in tanks
7. Effluent in surface water
8. Effluent in ground water
Ponds and reservoirs
Dams and reservoirs are a common
approach to storage of river water.
Big dams, however, do often cause
big unsolved problems and therefore
cannot be called environmentally
sound. Small dams with careful
consideration of ecological and social
impacts can do better. In permanent
rivers, under water beams are an
option. In ‘wadis’ sand dams are a
sound technology for the infiltration
of river water to the groundwater.
Artificial recharge of ground water
Artificial recharge is appropriate for the
augmentation of groundwater in aquifers. It may
supplement the natural percolation. In seasonal
climates Aquifer Storage and Recovery practices
both the storage and the quality control that is
essential to maintain
the quality of
groundwater resources.
Recharging can take
place from the surface or
directly into sub surface layers.
Rainwater harvesting ESTs
Rainwater runoff
from roofs is
stored in tanks to
be used inside
buildings.
Stormwater from streets and
parks can be infiltrated or
stored in ponds to provide
water for trees, gardens and
parks. Sand filters and
constructed wetlands can be
used for quality control.
Storage of treated sewage
Effluent from sewage treatment plants can be
reused in surface waters as a source for urban
water supply. Quality control is crucial.

The use of effluent for

recharging groundwater is
possible. Soil Aquifer Treatment
technology prevents pollution by
pathogens, nutrients and other
contaminants.
Priorities for storage solutions
In an integrated perspective, efficient and
sustainable storage and augmentation can best
be realized by decision makers if they follow this
sequence of options:
1. First, realize the full potential of treated
wastewater and rainwater options.
2. Then, use the potential of surface water
options.
3. And then, turn to aquifer based ESTs as a
third option.
Over-exploitation and pollution of aquifers
is a threat. Invisible impacts are hard to
restore.
[Sourcebook
Chapter 4.3] Supply and distribution ESTs
1. Surface water abstraction
2. Groundwater abstraction
3. Water supply reservoirs (tanks)
4. Transfer of water
5. Single pipeline systems (one quality)
6. Dual pipeline systems (two qualities)
7. Water containers (bottles, tanks)
8. Centralised treatment systems
9. Point of use treatment systems
 Water pipe systems
Water supply networks are advanced
systems that require advanced
maintenance regimes. Leakage, due to
poor maintenance is a major problem.
Often more than 50% of the piped
water is lost. Capacity building and
fund availability for maintenance are
the first priorities.

Lowering night time pressure and

a system of metering and billing
water use above a basic level may
be helpful but are not a final
solution.
Dual quality systems
A problem of central piped network supply, is the
use of drinking water quality for non drinking
purposes. In dual networks service water quality
has it’s own network. Wrong connections can be
avoided by different colours for different pipes.
Dual systems at the building level only, avoid city
networks.
Buildings should have a
reliable technical department for
maintenance and quality
control. Rainwater or
treated greywater can be used
as service water. Sizable
tanks can cope with fluctuations in
demand and supply.
Wells, tanks and bottles
At the neighborhood level, improving the
quality and increasing the number of
traditional wells can be a good
environmentally sound technology.

In a situation of centrally collected

drinking water from rivers or groundwater
(boreholes), good quality water can be
delivered by trucks to static tanks,
from where people
can take water home
in bottles or small
containers.
Drinking water quality
Health requires good quality drinking water.
Centralized treatment systems can be
improved and extended.

If drinking water of
reliable quality is
not available,
proper treatment at
the user level is an
option.
Priorities for supply solutions
Under an integrated water resource
management perspective, efficient and
sustainable supply and distribution can best be
realized by adapting priorities to decision-
making based on the existing situation:
1. In a traditional situation of wells, improving
this supply system has priority.
2. If this is difficult and there is an immediate
need, delivery by trucks is an option.
3. If there is a basis for financing and for
capacity building, piped water networks
become feasible. Their development should
go hand in hand with on-site systems for
supply of drinking water and service water.
[Sourcebook
Chapter 4.4] Use and saving ESTs
1. Waterless toilets (compost- and dry-)
2. Water saving toilets
3. Water saving urinals
4. Waterless urinals
5. Water saving taps
6. Water saving showerheads
7. Pressure reducers
8. Water saving household appliances
9. Economised water use: personal hygiene
10. Economised water use: cleaning & watering
Waterless toilets
Waterless toilets need neither water nor sewers.
They work on the basis of dehydration and
composting. The resulting compost can be
applied to the fields in urban agriculture. The
right degree of humidity is crucial. They are
often combined with urine separation. Vertical
ventilation pipes guarantee
odour free operation.
Compost toilets require
more space and need more
maintenance. Simple dry
toilets are easier to use and
cheaper. They need to be
emptied every week.
Water saving in households

Drinking, cleaning, bathing, washing, toilet

flushing. Combined water saving appliances lead
to 43% savings in liter per person per day.
Water saving in green spaces
Parks and gardens ask a lot of water, especially
in dry climates. Savings may result from
replacing piped water by rainwater or treated
wastewater.

The local government and

NGOs can also give a good
example demonstrating
how attractive green spaces
can be created with native
species adapted to dry
conditions.
Not only technology
The challenge is: “meeting increasing service
demands without increasing water supplies” (UN
-Habitat, Local Action for Global Goals, 2003).
This is not only a matter of technology but also
of life style, water squandering practices in
private and public buildings and in public open
space.
Change asks for a carrot and stick approach:
• tax incentives and levies, demonstration
projects
• rules, standards and enforcement
 Priorities for use & saving
In an integrated water resource management
perspective, efficient and sustainable water use
and saving can best be realized by decision makers
if they combine strategies:
1. In new developments water saving
ESTs should become part of design
and planning strategies from the beginning.
This includes strategies for maintenance.
2. In existing urban areas creating conditions
is crucial: financial incentives, technical
support, training of skilled labour, legal
support, new standards.
3. Demonstration projects can show the way in
a process of learning by doing.
[Sourcebook
Chapter 4.5] Reuse, recycle & disposal ESTs
quality and treatment issues
1. Domestic rainwater use
2. On-site treatment of grey water
3. Constructed wetlands
4. On-site and near-site treatment of black
water and mixed sewage
5. Separating rainwater from sewer systems
6. Environmentally sound centralized sewage
treatment in developing countries
Rainwater quality and use
Roof-top rainwater only needs minor treatment
to make it safe for service water. For use as
drinking water, filtration and disinfection is
required. There should be no debris in the tanks
and no light. Quality control is a must.
Rainwater quality and use
Run-off rainwater from streets and open spaces
can be treated in wetland systems. Separating
rainwater from the sewers greatly improves the
city treatment plant’s performance.
Grey & black water treatment
Household based decentralised ESTs deserve
more attention. They create conditions for
reuse at the domestic level and save costs for
sewage systems.
Grey & black water treatment

Example for on-site

sewage treatment

Small scale aerobic (>compost) or anaerobic

technology (>methane + slurry) are feasible.
These innovative ESTs require careful and
skilful guidance. For example joint projects of
users with researchers and practitioners in a
learning by doing context.
 Constructed wetlands
Stabilisation ponds and constructed wetlands are a
low-cost alternative for the treatment of domestic
wastewater. They provide water for irrigation in urban
agriculture and for watering green spaces.
Detention and retention ponds, lined up with reeds
and other wetland plants, perform well in purifying
run-off rainwater from quite streets. More polluted
water requires constructed wetlands designed for
horizontal or vertical flow,
filtering, adsorption and
uptake of nutrients.
Good design and maintenance
are vital.
 Advanced primary treatment
Increasingly strict standards,
derived from the situation in
developed countries have made it
almost impossible to reuse
effluent and sewage sludge in
peri-urban agriculture. In
developing countries effluent
(from domestic wastewater
treatment) usually contains less
heavy metals and other toxic
substances and more pathogens.
Advanced Primary Treatment (APT) is a new technology that
combines primary (mechanical) treatment with filtration and
disinfection. This opens healthy and water efficient perspectives.
 Priorities for reuse, recycling
& safe disposal
Under an integrated water resource management
perspective, the choice of reuse, recycling and safe
disposal options follows these priorities:
1. Pollution prevention goes first. Roof-top rain-
water and water from wells should retain
drinking water quality.
2. In urban situations with an existing piped
network, on-site rainwater and grey
water treatment for service water should
have priority in quality management strategy.
3. Reuse and recycle should have priority in
wastewater treatment both at a centralized and
decentralized level.
[Sourcebook
Chapter 5] Integrated options and cases
EST-priorities for storage (and augmentation),
  supply (and distribution), use (and saving) and
reuse & recycling (and safe disposal) have to be
integrated in locally ‘promising combinations’.
This integration depends on the potential of the
local situation (climate, hydrology, city-landscape)
‘Promising combinations’ also greatly depend on
institutional capacity and the development stage.
Five ‘guiding models’ illustrate these aspects. A
given decision situation may be close to one of
them. In a larger urban area, the guiding models
may guide the making of a zoning model for the
city, with specific strategies for each zone.
 City model
development stage Existing medium to large
cities, important role for government agencies,
few collective and individual user based systems.
promising EST combinations:
storage Groundwater recharge, small dams in rivers. If big
dam exists, alternatives reduce dependency.
Strong promotion of rainwater harvesting ESTs.
supply Full piped network. Priority for leakage control.
use Promotion of water saving toilets and water
saving appliances. Water sensitive urban design to
create conditions for run-off use for watering
parks and gardens.
reuse & Improving centralised wastewater treatment.
recycling Reuse of effluent and sludge in agriculture. Reuse
of treated wastewater in watering green spaces.
 New town model
development stage
New development with a leading role for
agencies, NGOs and developers. Collective
organisations and individuals take over after
construction.
storage promising EST combinations:
Groundwater or surface water based systems.
Building design regulations and legal frame
supply creates good conditions for rainwater harvesting.
Full piped network for drinking water. Collective
use and individual systems for service water.
Water saving and dry toilets, water saving
appliances. Water sensitive urban design for run-
reuse & off use in green spaces.
recycling Centralised and collective blackwater treatment.
Building level grey water treatment (service
water). Constructed wetlands in urban design.