GENERAL CHEMISTRY

CHE 101
Prof. Moavin Islam
PhD FICorr MIM CEng
(MvI)

1
 Topic 5
Chemical Bonding-I

Based on
Chapter 9 of Book by Raymond Chang
Chapter 9 of Book by Martin Silverberg
 Chemical Bonding
 Why do atoms of different elements react?
 What are the forces that hold atoms together in
molecules and ions in ionic compounds?
 What shapes do they assume?

These are some of the questions addressed

in this Topic on Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding: Basic Concepts
Lewis Dot Symbols
 The development of the periodic table and concept of
electron configuration gave chemists a basis to explain
molecule and compound formation.
 Gilbert Lewis, an American chemist rationalized that
atoms combine in order to achieve a more stable
electron configuration. Maximum stability results when
an atom is isoelectronic with a noble gas.
 When atoms interact to form a chemical bond, only their
outer regions with the valence electrons of the atoms
are involved.
Chemical Bonding: Basic Concepts
Lewis Dot Symbols
 To keep track of valence electrons in a chemical
reaction, and to make sure that the total number of
electrons does not change, chemists use a system of
dots devised by Lewis called Lewis Dot Symbols.
 A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an
element and one dot for each valence electron in an
atom of the element.
 Elements in the same group have similar outer electron
configurations and hence similar Lewis dot symbols.
 The transition metals, lanthanides, and actinides all
have incompletely filled inner shells, and in general, we
cannot write simple Lewis dot symbols for them.
 Lewis Electron-Dot Symbols

To draw the Lewis symbol for any main-group element:

 Note the A-group number, which gives the number of
valence electrons.
 Place one dot at a time on each of the four sides of the
element symbol.
 Keep adding dots, pairing them, until all are used up.

Example:
Nitrogen, N, is in Group 5A and therefore has 5 valence electrons.
••

••
•• • • •
•N• or • N• or • N or N•
• •• • •
 Lewis Symbols and Bonding

• For a metal, the total number of dots in the Lewis

symbol is the number of electrons the atom loses to
form a cation.
• For a nonmetal, the number of unpaired dots equals
• the number of electrons the atom gains to form an anion
• or the number it shares to form covalent bonds.
• The octet rule states that when atoms bond, they lose,
gain, or share electrons to attain a filled outer level of
8 electrons (or 2, for H and Li).
• The octet rule holds for nearly all of the compounds of
Period 2 elements and a large number of others as well.
Lewis electron-dot symbols for elements in Periods 2 and 3.
Lewis Dot Symbols For The Main Group Elements And The Noble Gases.
Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds
 Electron configuration and the strength of nucleus-
electron attractions determine the properties of an
atom
 Similarly, the type and strength of chemical bonds
determine the properties of a substance.
The Three Ways Elements Combine
 We will examine how atomic properties give rise to
three models of chemical bonding—ionic, covalent,
and metallic—and how each model explains the
behavior of substances.
 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds

• A fundamental question is: why do atoms bond at all?

• In general, bonding lowers the potential energy between
positive and negative particles, whether they are
oppositely charged ions, or nuclei and electrons.
 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds
• There is, in general, a gradation
from more metallic elements to more
nonmetallic elements across a
period and up a group.
• Three models of bonding result from
the three ways atoms of these two
types of elements can combine.
 Atomic Properties and Chemical Bonds
A. Metal with Nonmetal: Electron Transfer (Ionic Bonding).
◦ Electron transfer and ionic bonding occur between atoms with large
differences in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons.
◦ The chemical formula of an ionic compound is the empirical formula
because it gives the cation-to-anion ratio
B. Nonmetal with Nonmetal: Electron Sharing (Covalent Bonding
◦ When two atoms do not differ in their tendencies to lose or gain electrons,
we observe electron sharing and covalent bonding.
◦ The chemical formula of a covalent compound is the molecular formula
because it gives the actual numbers of atoms in each molecule.
C. Metal with Metal: Electron Pooling (Metallic Bonding)
◦ Unlike the localized electrons in covalent bonding, electrons in metallic
bonding are delocalized, moving freely throughout the entire piece of metal
Three Models of Chemical Bonding
There are exceptions to the idealized models, so it is not always possible to
predict bond type from positions of the elements in the periodic table.

Gradations in bond type among Period 3 (black) and

Group 4A (red) elements.
 The Ionic Bonding Model

• An ionic bond is formed when a metal transfers

electrons to a nonmetal to form ions, which attract
each other to give a solid compound.
• The total number of electrons lost by the metal atom(s)
equals the total number of electrons gained by the
nonmetal atom(s).
• In most cases, for the main groups, the ion that
forms has a filled outer level of either two or eight
electrons (octet rule), the number in the nearest
noble gas.
 Three ways to depict electron transfer in the formation of Li+ and F–.

Electron configurations Li 1s22s1 + F 1s22s22p5 → Li+ 1s2 + F–

1s22s22p6
Orbital diagrams

Li ↑↓ ↑ Li+ ↑↓
+ 1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p

F ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ F- ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
1s 2s 2p 1s 2s 2p
Lewis electron-dot symbols
••

••
••
•• •• –
Li• •F Li+ + F
•• ••
• In ionic bonding, the total number of electrons lost by the metal atom(s)
equals the total number of electrons gained by the nonmetal atom(s).
 Sample Problem

Depicting Ion Formation

PROBLEM: Use partial orbital diagrams and Lewis symbols to depict

the formation of Na+ and O2– ions from the atoms, and
determine the formula of the compound formed.

• Draw orbital diagrams and Lewis symbols for Na and O

PLAN: atoms.
• To attain filled outer levels, Na loses one electron and O
gains two.
• Two Na atoms are needed for each O atom so that the
number of electrons lost equals the number of electrons
gained.
 Sample Problem: Solution

Na ↑
3s 3p + O ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑
Na ↑ 2s 2p

3s 3p

2Na+ + O2– ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓
2s 2p

The formula is Na2O

 The exothermic formation of sodium bromide

Sodium (in beaker under The reaction is

mineral oil) and bromine rapid and vigorous
• Formation of NaBr is one of typical reactions between
active metals and nonmetals: Ionic solids form readily.
 Formation of Ionic Compounds:
The Importance of Lattice Energy
 Energy is absorbed during the electron transfer (e- loss/gain)
process followed by an enormous release of energy as the ions
combine to form a solid compound
Li (g) + F (g) = Li+ (g) + F- (g) DH = 192 kJ
 When Li+ (g) and F- (g) combine to form gaseous LiF molecules,
a large quantity of heat is released:
Li+ (g) + F- (g) = LiF (g) DH = -755 kJ
 The gaseous LiF molecules coalesce into crystalline LiF(s) solid
releasing even more energy:
Li+(g) + F-(g) = LiF(s) DH = -1050 kJ
• The negative of this enthalpy change (DH) is 1050 kJ, the
Lattice Energy (DHoLattice) of LiF. It is the energy required to
separate 1 mol of an ionic solid into gaseous ions.
 Determining Lattice Energy
with a Born-Haber Cycle
 The magnitude of the lattice energy is a measure of the
strength of the ionic interactions and influences macroscopic
properties, such as melting point, hardness, and solubility.
 Lattice energy is usually measured indirectly using Hess’s law
in a Born-Haber cycle, which is a series of steps from
elements to ionic solid for which all the enthalpies are known
except the lattice energy.
 The Born-Haber cycle shows that the energy required for
elements to form ions is supplied by the attraction among the
ions in the solid.
 The ionic solids exist only because the lattice energy far
exceeds the total energy needed to form the ions.
The Born-Haber Cycle for Lithium Fluoride.
 Periodic Trends in Lattice Energy
• Lattice energy results from electrostatic interactions among
ions, so its magnitude depends on ionic size, ionic charge,
and the arrangement of the ions in the solid. Therefore, we
expect to see periodic trends in lattice energy.
Explaining the Trends with Coulomb’s Law
• Coulomb’s law states that the electrostatic energy between
particles A and B is directly proportional to the product of
their charges and inversely proportional to the distance
between them:

Coulomb's Law
Electrostatic energy  charge A x charge B
distance
 Explaining the Trends with Coulomb’s Law
• Lattice energy is directly proportional to electrostatic energy.
In an ionic solid, cations and anions lie as close to each
other as possible, so the distance between them is the sum
of the ionic radii

cation charge x anion charge

Electrostatic energy  cation radius + anion radius  DHolattice

• Lattice energy is affected by ionic size and ionic charge.

• As ionic size increases, lattice energy decreases.
• Lattice energy therefore decreases down a group on the
periodic table.
• As ionic charge increases, lattice energy increases.
Trends in lattice energy
 Trends in lattice energy
 Effect of ionic size. As we move down a group, ionic radii
increase, so the electrostatic energy between cations and
anions decreases; thus, lattice energies should decrease as
well.
 Effect of ionic charge. Across a period, ionic charge changes.
For example,
◦ LiF and MgO oxides have cations and anions of about equal radii.
◦ However, Li+ and F- ions have single charges while Mg+2 and O-2
are doubly charged ions.
◦ The difference in the lattice energies of the two compounds is
striking: DHolattice of LiF is 1050 kJ/mol and DHolattice of MgO =
3923 kJ/mol.
 Thisnearly 4x increase in DHolattice reflects the 4x increase in the
product of the charges.
 Sample Problem

Predicting Relative Lattice Energies from Ionic Properties

PROBLEM:
Use ionic properties to choose the compound in each pair with
the larger lattice energy: (a) Rbl or NaBr; (b) KCI or CaS.

PLAN:
• To choose the compound with the larger lattice energy,
apply Coulomb's law and periodic trends in ionic radius and
charge.
• Examine the ions in each compound for ions of similar size
• Higher charge leads to a larger lattice energy; for ions with
the same charge, smaller size leads to larger lattice energy
because the ions can get closer together.
 Sample Problem: SOLUTION

• (a) NaBr. All the ions have single charges, so charge is not
involved. Size increases down a group, so Rb+ is larger
than Na+, and I– is larger than Br–. Therefore, NaBr has the
larger lattice energy because it consists of smaller ions.

• (b) CaS. Size decreases from left to right, so K+ is slightly larger

than Ca2+, and S2– is slightly larger than CI–. However, these
small differences are not nearly as important as the ìonic
charges: Ca2+ and S2– have twice the charge of K+ and Cl–, so
CaS has the larger lattice energy.

The actual lattice energies are:

(a) RbI = 598 kJ/mol and NaBr = 719 kJ/mol
(b) KCl = 676 kJ/mol and CaS = 3039 kJ/mol
How the Ionic Model Explains the Properties
of Ionic Compounds
 Physical behavior.
As a typical ionic compound, a piece of rock salt (NaCl) is hard
(does not dent), rigid (does not bend), and brittle (cracks
without deforming).
◦ These properties arise from the strong attractive forces that hold
the ions in specific positions. Moving them out of position requires
overcoming these forces, so rock salt does not dent or bend.
◦ If enough force is applied, ions of like charge are brought next to
each other, and repulsions between them crack the sample
suddenly
 Electrical conductivity.
Ionic compounds typically do not conduct electricity in the solid
state but do conduct when melted or dissolved. According to
the model, the solid consists of fixed ions, but when it melts or
dissolves, the ions can move and carry a current
 Why Ionic Compounds Crack

A: Ionic compounds crack when struck with enough force.

B: When a force moves like charges near each other,
repulsions cause a crack.
Electrical conductance and ion mobility
How the Ionic Model Explains the Properties
of Ionic Compounds
 Melting and boiling point.
Large amounts of energy are
needed to free the ions from
their positions and separate
them. Thus, ionic compounds
have high melting points and
much higher boiling points.
 In fact, the interionic
attraction is so strong that a
vaporized ionic compound
consists of ion pairs, Ion pairs form when an ionic
gaseous ionic molecules, compound vaporizes.
rather than individual ions
Melting and Boiling Points of Some Ionic Compounds

Compound mp (ºC) bp (ºC)

CsBr 636 1300

NaI 661 1304
MgCl2 714 1412
KBr 734 1435
CaCl2 782 >1600
NaCl 801 1413
LiF 845 1676
KF 858 1505
MgO 2852 3600
 The Covalent Bonding Model
 The number of covalent compounds known to
scientists far exceeds the number of ionic
compounds.
 Covalent substances range from diatomic
hydrogen to biological and synthetic
macromolecules with many thousands of atoms
and even to some minerals that have covalent
bonds throughout the sample.
 Covalent bonds occur in all polyatomic ions, too.
 Without doubt, sharing electrons is the main way
that atoms interact.
 The Formation of a Covalent Bond
 A covalent bond arises from the balance between the nuclei
attracting the electrons and electrons and nuclei repelling each other.
• Formation of a covalent bond
always results in greater electron
density between the nuclei
• To achieve a full outer level of
electrons, each atom in a
covalent bond “counts” the
shared electrons as belonging
entirely to itself.
• Thus, the two shared electrons
in H2 simultaneously fill the
outer level of both H atom.
• The shared pair, or bonding
pair, is represented by a pair of
dots or a line:
 The Formation of a Covalent Bond
 An outer-level electron pair that is not involved in
bonding is called a lone pair, or unshared pair.
 The bonding pair in HF fills the outer level of the H atom
and, together with three lone pairs, fills the outer level of
the F atom as well

• In F2 the bonding pair and three lone pairs fill the outer
level of each F atom:
Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length
 A covalent bond has three important properties that are
closely related to one another and to the compound’s
reactivity—bond order, bond energy, and bond length.
 Bond order.
The bond order is the number of electron pairs being
shared by a given pair of atoms.
 A single bond, as in H2, HF, or F2, is the most common
bond and consists of one bonding pair of electrons. A
single bond has a Bond Order of 1.
 Many molecules (and ions) contain multiple bonds, in
which more than one pair is shared between two atoms.
Multiple bonds usually involve C, O, and/or N atoms.
Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length
 A double bond consists of two bonding electron pairs,
four electrons shared between two atoms.
So the Bond Order is 2.
 Ethylene (C2H4) contains a carbon-carbon double bond
and four carbon-hydrogen single bonds

• Each carbon “counts” the four electrons in the double

bond and the four in its two single bonds to hydrogens
to attain an octet
Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length
 A triplebond consists of three shared pairs: two atoms
share six electrons, so the Bond Order is 3.
 The N2 molecule has a triple bond, and each N atom
also has a lone pair. Six shared and two unshared
electrons give each N atom an octet

• Bond energy
The strength of a covalent bond depends on the
magnitude of the attraction between the nuclei and shared
electrons. The bond energy (BE) (also called bond
enthalpy or bond strength) is the energy needed to
overcome this attraction and is defined as the standard
enthalpy change for breaking the bond.
 Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length
• Bond breakage is an endothermic process, so bond energy is
always positive:

• Bond formation is an exothermic process, so the sign of its

enthalpy change is always negative

• Stronger bonds have a larger BE because they are lower in

energy. Weaker bonds have a smaller BE because they are
higher in energy
• The energy of a given bond varies slightly from molecule to
molecule and even within the same molecule, so each value
is an average bond energy.
Properties of a Covalent Bond:
Order, Energy, and Length
Bond length.
 The bond length of a covalent bond is the distance
between the nuclei of two bonded atoms.
 Like bond energies, these values are average bond
lengths for a bond in different substances.
 Bond length is related to the sum of the radii of the
bonded atoms.
 Bond lengths for a series of similar bonds, as in the
halogens, increase with atomic size
 Bond Length and Covalent Radius
Internuclear distance Covalent Internuclear distance Covalent
(bond length) radius (bond length) radius

72 pm 114 pm

Internuclear distance Covalent

(bond length) radius Internuclear distance Covalent
(bond length) radius
100 pm
133 pm
Trends in Bond Order, Energy, and Length
 The order, energy, and length of a covalent bond are
interrelated.
 Two nuclei are more strongly attracted to two shared
electron pairs than to one, so double-bonded atoms are
drawn closer together and are more difficult to pull apart
than single-bonded atoms.
 For a given pair of atoms, a higher bond order results in
a smaller bond length and a higher bond energy.
 Thus, for a given pair of atoms, a shorter bond is a
stronger bond.
 Bond length increases down a group in the periodic
table and decreases across the period.
 Bond energy shows the opposite trend.
Relationship Between Bond Order, Energy, and Length
 Sample Problem

Comparing Bond Length and Bond Strength

PROBLEM: Using the periodic table, rank the bonds in each set in
order of decreasing bond length and decreasing bond
strength:
(a) S–F, S–Br, S–Cl (b) C=O, C–O, CΞO

(a) S is singly bonded to three different halogen atoms, so the

bond order is the same. Bond length increases and bond
strength decreases as the atomic radius of the halogen
PLAN: increases.
(b) The same two atoms are bonded in each case, but the
bond orders differ. Bond strength increases and bond
length decreases as bond order increases.
 Sample Problem

SOLUTION:

(a) Atomic size increases going down a group, so F < Cl < Br.

Bond length: S–Br > S–Cl > S–F

Bond strength: S–F > S–Cl > S–Br

(b) By ranking the bond orders, we get

Bond length: C–O > C=O > CΞO

Bond strength: CΞO > C=O > C–O
Explanation of Properties of Covalent Substances
 The covalent bonding model proposes that electron sharing
between pairs of atoms leads to strong, localized bonds.
 Most, but not all, covalent substances consist of individual
molecules. These molecular covalent substances have
very different physical properties than network covalent
solids because different types of forces give rise to them.
Physical Properties of Molecular Covalent Substances.
 Most are gases, liquids, or low-melting solids, which boil
and melt at relatively low temperatures
 Strong bonding forces hold the atoms together within the
molecule, and weak intermolecular forces act between
separate molecules in the sample.
 It is the weak forces between molecules that account for
the physical properties of molecular covalent substances
Behavior of Molecular Covalent Substances

When pentane (C5H12) boils, weak forces

between pentane molecules are overcome, not
the strong C-C and C-H bonds within each
pentane molecule.
 Explanation of Properties of Covalent Substances
Physical Properties of Network Covalent Solids.
 Network covalent solids are held together by covalent bonds
between atoms throughout the sample, and their properties reflect
the strength of covalent bonds.

Quartz (SiO2) has Si-O covalent Diamond has covalent bonds

bonds in three dimensions; no connecting each C atom to 4 others.
separate SiO2 molecules exist. It It is the hardest natural substance
is very hard and melts at 1550o C. known and melts at 3550o C.
Explanation of Properties of Covalent Substances

Electrical conductivity .
 An electric current is carried by either mobile electrons
or mobile ions.
 Most covalent substances are poor electrical
conductors, whether melted or dissolved, because their
electrons are localized as either shared or unshared
pairs, and no ions are present.
 Enthalpy of Reaction and Bond Energy
 The relative strengths of the bonds in reactants and products
determine whether heat is released or absorbed in a
chemical reaction.
 The heat released or absorbed during a chemical change is
due to differences between Reactant Bond (RB) energies
and Product Bond (PB) energies
 A certain quantity of heat is absorbed (DHº > 0) to break the
RBs and form separate atoms.
 A different quantity of heat is then released (DHº < 0) when
the atoms form PBs .
 Thesum (S) of these enthalpy changes is the Enthalpy of
Reaction, DHºrxn

DHºrxn = SDHºRBs broken+ SDHºPBs formed

 Enthalpy of Reaction and Bond Energy
 Inan exothermic reaction, the magnitude of DHºPBs formed is
greater than that of DHºRBs broken, so the sum, DHºrxn, is negative
(heat is released).
 In an endothermic reaction, the opposite situation is true: the
magnitude of DHºPBs formed is smaller than that of DHºRBs broken, so
DHºrxn is positive (heat is absorbed).

 DHºrxn can also be represented in terms of Bond Energy (BE)

DHºrxn = SBERBs broken - SBEPBs formed

• The minus sign is required because all bond energies are positive
Table A: Average Bond Energies (kJ/mol) and
Bond Lengths (pm)
 Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHºrxn
 Calculation of DHºrxn for two reactions
(a) Formation of HF and
(b) Combustion of CH4 (methane)
 Formation of HF
(use a positive sign for bonds broken and a negative sign for
bonds formed)

Bonds broken:

Bonds formed:

Therefore
Using Bond Energies to Calculate Hºrxn for HF Formation
 Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHºrxn

• Combustion of CH4 (methane):

Bonds broken:

Bonds formed:

Therefore:
Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHºrxn for the Combustion of Methane
 Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHºrxn

SAMPLE Calculate DHºrxn for the chlorination of methane

PROBLEM: (CH ) to form chloroform (CHCl ).
4 3

H H

H C H + 3 Cl Cl Cl C Cl + 3 H Cl

H Cl

bonds broken bonds formed

SDHº positive SDHº negative

All the reactant bonds break, and all the product bonds form.
PLAN: Find the bond energies in Table A and substitute the two
sums, with correct signs, into Equation for DHºrxn
 Using Bond Energies to Calculate DHºrxn

SOLUTION:
For bonds broken:
4 x C-H = (4 mol)(413 kJ/mol) = 1652 kJ
3 x Cl-Cl = (3 mol)(243 kJ/mol) = 729 kJ
SDHºbonds broken = 2381 kJ
For bonds formed:
3 x C-Cl = (3 mol)(–339 kJ/mol) = –1017 kJ
1 x C-H = (1 mol)(–413 kJ/mol) = –413 kJ
3 x H-Cl = (3 mol)(–427 kJ/mol) = –1281 kJ
SDHºbonds formed = –2711 kJ

DHºreaction = SDHºbonds broken + SDH bonds formed

= 2381 kJ + (–2711 kJ) = –330 kJ

Bond Polarity and
Electronegativity

• The ionic and covalent

bonding models portray
compounds as formed by
either complete electron
transfer or complete
electron sharing.
• But, in real substances,
most atoms are joined by
polar covalent bonds—
between pure ionic and
pure covalent
 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity
 A covalent bond in which the shared electron pair is not
shared equally, but remains closer to one atom than the
other, is a polar covalent bond.
 Unequal sharing of electrons causes the more
electronegative atom of the bond to be partially negative and
the less electronegative atom to be partially positive. For
example in H-F, the F atom attracts the shared electron pair
more strongly than the H atom. So the F- end of the bond is
partially negative and the H- end partially positive.
 The ability of an atom in a covalent bond to attract the shared
electron pair is called its electronegativity.
 The electrostatic attraction between these partial charges
increases the energy required to break the bond.
 Trends in Electronegativity
 In general, electronegativity is inversely related to
atomic size because the nucleus of a smaller atom is
closer to the shared pair than the nucleus of a larger
atom, so it attracts the electrons more strongly.
 American chemist Linus Pauling derived a scale of
relative EN values based on fluorine having the highest
EN value of 4.0
◦ Down a main group, electronegativity decreases as atomic
size increases.
◦ Across a period of main-group elements, electronegativity
increases as atomic size decreases.
◦ Nonmetals are more electronegative than metals.
The Pauling Electronegativity (EN) scale
Electronegativity and Atomic size
 Bond Polarity and Partial Ionic Character
 Whenever atoms with different electronegativities form a
bond, such as in HF [H (EN=2.1) and F (EN=4.0)], the bonding
pair is shared unequally.
 This unequal distribution of electron density results in a polar
covalent bond. It is depicted by a polar arrow pointing
toward the partially negative pole or by d+ and d- symbols

Electron density distributions shown as relief maps for H2, F2, and HF.
The Importance of Electronegativity
Difference (DEN)
 The electronegativity difference (DEN), the difference
between the EN values of the bonded atoms, is directly
related to a bond’s polarity. It ranges from 0.0 in a
diatomic element, such as H2, O2, or Cl2, all the way up to
3.3, the difference between the most electronegative
atom, F (4.0), and the most electropositive, Cs (0.7), in
the ionic compound CsF.
 Another parameter closely related to DEN is the partial
ionic character of a bond: a greater DEN results in larger
partial charges and higher partial ionic character.
The Importance of Electronegativity Difference (DEN)

Percent ionic character

as
a function of DEN.

DEN ranges for classifying

the partial ionic character of bonds.
 Sample Problem

Determining Bond Polarity from EN Values

PROBLEM: (a) Use a polar arrow to indicate the polarity of each

bond: N–H, F–N, I–Cl.
(b) Rank the following bonds in order of increasing
polarity: H–N, H–O, H–C.

PLAN: (a) Use Pauling’s EN Chart to find the EN values for

each element. The polar arrow points toward the
more electronegative element.
(b) The greater the DEN between the atoms, the more
polar the bond.
 Sample Problem: Solution

SOLUTION: (a) The EN values are:

N = 3.0, H = 2.1; F = 4.0; I = 2.5, Cl = 3.0

POLARITY: N–H F–N I–Cl

SOLUTION: (b) The EN values are:

N = 3.0, H = 2.1; O = 3.5; C = 2.5

DEN for H–N = 3.0 – 2.1 = 0.9

DEN for H–O = 3.5 – 2.1 = 1.4
DEN for H–C = 2.5 – 2.1 = 0.4

In order of polarity:
H-C < H-N < H-O
 Gradation in Bonding Type Across a Period
 A metal and a nonmetal have a relatively large DEN and
typically form an ionic compound.
 Nonmetals have a small DEN and form covalent compounds.
 Thus, as DEN decreases, the bond becomes more covalent,
and the character of the substance changes from ionic solid
to covalent gas.
 For example , when we combine chlorine with each of the
Period-3 elements, starting with sodium, we observe a
steady decrease in DEN and a gradation in bond type from
ionic through polar covalent to nonpolar covalent.
 Gradation in Bonding Across a Period
• Properties of the Period-3 chlorides. As DEN decreases, melting
point and electrical conductivity decrease because the bond type
changes from ionic to polar covalent to nonpolar covalent.
The Metallic Bonding Model
 Metals can transfer electrons to nonmetals and form ionic
solids, such as NaCl. And experiments with metals in the gas
phase show that two metal atoms can even share their
valence electrons to form gaseous, diatomic molecules, such
as Na2. But what holds the atoms together in a chunk of Na
metal?
 The electron-sea model of metallic bonding proposes that all
the metal atoms in the sample contribute their valence
electrons to form a delocalized electron “sea” throughout the
piece, with the metal ions (nuclei and core electrons) lying in
an orderly array.
 All the atoms in the sample share the electrons, and the
piece is held together by the mutual attraction of the metal
cations for the mobile valence electrons
The Metallic Bonding Model
 Metallic Bonding is fundamentally different than the
other two types, Ionic and Covalent:
 In contrast to ionic bonding, no anions are present, and
the metal ions are not held in place as rigidly.
 In contrast to covalent bonding, no particular pair of
metal atoms is bonded through a localized electron pair.
 Instead of forming compounds, two or more metals
typically form alloys, solid mixtures of variable
composition. Alloys appear in car and airplane bodies,
bridges, coins, jewelry, dental fillings, and many other
familiar objects.
Trends in Metallic Bonding
 Meltingand boiling points. Nearly all metals are solids with
moderate to high melting points and much higher boiling
points
◦ Down a group, melting points decrease because the larger metal
ions have a weaker attraction to the electron sea.
◦ Across a period, melting points increase. Alkaline earth metals
[Group 2A] have higher melting points than alkali metals [Group
1A] because their 2+ cations have stronger attractions to twice as
many valence electrons
 Electricalconductivity. Unlike ionic and covalent
substances, metals are good conductors of electricity in
both the solid and liquid states because of their mobile
electrons.
 Trends in Metallic Bonding
 Thermal conductivity. Mobile electrons also make metals
good conductors of heat. The mobile, delocalized electrons
in the metal disperse the heat more quickly than the
localized electron pairs in the covalent bonds of wood.
 Mechanical properties. When a piece of metal is deformed by
a hammer, the metal ions do not repel each other, but rather
slide past each other through the electron sea and end up in
new positions; thus metals dent and bend.

One gram of gold, can be drawn into a wire 20 mm thick and 165 m long
or hammered into a 1.0-m2 sheet that is 230 atoms (about 70 nm) thick