Transmission System
Communication System
Media
Switching
System
Switching
System
Transmission Transmission
System System
Transmission System
• Processing for Multiplexing
• Multiplexing
• Amplification
• Modulation and transmission over media
Multiplexing
• FDM
• TDM
• TDM is suited for digital signals, has more
advantages
PCM
• Filtering
• Sampling
• Quantization
• Companding
• Encoding
• Line Coding
Sampling
T1 T2 T3 Audio Signal
time
T4 T5 T6 T7
Sampler Output
Pulse Amplitude T1 T2 T3
time
Modulated T4 T5 T6 T7
(PAM) signal
1. Voice Frequency 4 KHz
2. Sampling 4 KHz * 2 = 8 KHz
Quantization & Encoding
For Quantization CEPT countries use A- Law,other countries use µ-law is used.In µ-law the decoder
output value number is 0 to 127 for positive and 0 to 127 for Negative.While in A- Law ,the decoder output
value number is 1 to128 for positive and 1 to 128 for negative.
Quantizing = Amplitude is given a certain value.
Encoding = 8 KHz * 8 = 64 KHz
30 Channel PCM (E1)
2Mb Frame Structure
FAS (Frame Alignment signal) Signaling
NFAS(Non frame Alignment signal)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31
32channels/Tim
e slots
0 Each channel is of 64Kb/s
32 * 64 KHz = 2.048 Mb/s
Capacity = 30 Base Channels
Multi Frame Structure
Submultiframe 1 Submultiframe 2
2ms ( 500Hz )
Multi frame
F0 to F15
125s ( 8 kHz )
Encoded telephone signals Encoded telephone signals
s
FO
Multiframe
Spare bit a to h = PCM 8 –bit encoded telephone
frame alignment
alignment
signal of the assigned channel
F1
488 ns ( 2048 KHz )
A : bit used to indicate MUX alarm (Normal1:0,Alarm=1) CH . 1 CH . 16
X : Bit reserved for future international use (No use =1) Can be
a to d = Signaling of the associated channel (CAS) or the
used for CRC-4 check bit
F 215
Y: bit reserved for domestic use.One bit of 5 can be assigned for common signaling channel(CCS)
CH . 15
Mb/s remote loop back command signal(OFF:1,ON: 0) CH . 30
24 Channel System (T1)
The standard frame is 193 bits long
(1 Framing bit + 24 8-bit timeslots).
Each timeslot is scanned at a rate of 8000 times per second.
Therefore, in one second, there are: 8000 * 8 bits/TS * 24 TS =
1,536,000 Bits of "Payload" data transmitted.
There are: 8000 * 1 = 8,000 Bits of synchronization bits
transmitted within a one second interval.
Therefore, the total aggregate rate of the T1 signal is 1,544,000
BPS (1.544 MBPS).
A Superframe consists of twelve 193-bit frames. A framing bit
can support different functions, depending upon which of the
twelve frames it is in. There are two types of framing bits;
Terminal framing (Ft) and Signaling framing (Fs) bits.
1.01 Plesiochronous Digital
Hierarchy
PDH (Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
Plesio means = similar
Chronous means= Timing
Plesiochronous - "almost synchronous, because bits are
stuffed into the frames as padding and the
calls (signal) location varies slightly - jitters - from frame to
frame".
PDH Bit rates
Sampling x Coding 64kbit/s
64kbit/s
1. PCM 30 Mux (D1 Level ) 8kHz x 8bits
2. PDH (D2 Level )
32 Channels
4 * 2.048 +stuffing bits = 8.448 Mbps
Capacity = 120 Base Channels (PCM30 or 31, CRC 2Mbit/s
2Mbit/s E1
C12 Container
3. PDH (D3 Level )
4 * 8.448 + stuffing bits = 34.368 Mbps
Capacity = 480 Base Channels
4 Channels 8Mbit/s
8Mbit/s
4. PDH (D4 Level )
4 * 34.368 +stuffing bits = 139.264 Mbps 4 Channels
Capacity = 1920 Base Channels
34Mbit/s
34Mbit/s E3
C4 Container
5. PDH (D5 Level )
4 * 139 + stuffing bits = 565 Mbps
Capacity = 7680 Base Channels
4 Channels E4
140Mbit/s
140Mbit/s
C4 Container
Bit Stuffing
Pleisochronous Multiplexing
Bit Stuffing and Justification (Contd..)
The number of stuffing bits added depends not only on the speed
of the tributaries to the multiplexer, but also on the speed of the
higher order bit stream
The justification process is employed in all the PDH Multiplexers
At the far end of the transmission system, the justification bits are
removed and the original digital signal is recovered
The removal of these justification bits causes a small variation in the
phase of the clock.This variation is called “Jitter”
1.02 What are jitter and wander?
Jitter:
jitter” is the term used to designate periodic or stochastic
deviations of the significant instants of a digital signal from the
ideal, equidistant values.
Otherwise stated, the transitions of a digital signal invariably
occur either too early or too late when compared to a perfect
square wave (reference clock).
Wander:
very slow jitter is known as “wander”. ITU-T G.810 puts the limit
between jitter and wander at 10 Hz.
Jitter vs Wander
Parameter Jitter Wander
Frequency range of phase >10Hz 0-10Hz
variations
Primary disruption Causes bit errors Synchronization
problem
Reference clock source Not required Absolutely necessary
for measurement
Unit for amplitude UI(Unit interval) Ns
Test times Minutes Long-term
measurement (hours,
days)
Jitter and Wander Definitions
Ideal Signal (NRZ)
Jittered Signal
Jitter
Sources of Jitter and Wander
• Interference signals
• Pattern dependent jitter
• Phase noise
• Delay variation
• Stuffing and wait time jitter
• Mapping jitter
• Pointer jitter
Definition of Jitter Peak-to-Peak Amplitude
Jitter / UIpp
Jitter Time
Amplitude
(PP)
Measurement Period
WANDER Definitions
Wander Long-term timing variation (below 10 Hz)
TIE "Time Interval Error"
MTIE "Max. Time Interval Error"
TDEV "Time Deviation", timing variation as a function of
integration time. Provides information about the
spectral content.
TVAR "Time Variation", square of TDEV
ADEV "Allen Deviation"
MADEV "Modified Allen Deviation"
1.03 Disadvantages of PDH
Plesiochronous Hierarchy based on 2Mbps primary rates permits
multiplexing up to 140Mbps respectively.
Changing from one hierarchical level to another requires additional
equipment.
Transmitting a multiplexed signal (34/140 Mb, etc) requires
specialized equipment.
Redirection (cross-connection) of channels must be done by hand on
DDFs.
Administrative connections require separate equipment to support
Supervision, EOW and protection switching.
Compatibility of transmission and administrative signals between
different vendor may give trouble.
1.04 Advantages of SDH
Need for extensive network management capability
within the hierarchy.
Standard interfaces between equipment.
Need for inter-working between north American and
European systems.
Facilities to add or drop tributaries directly from a
high speed signal.
Standardization of equipment management process.
