EASC 612: Seismic Stratigraphy

University of Ghana
Second Semester 2013
 Scope of Sequence Stratigraphy
• It is essential to our understanding of the marine sedimentary processes which
produce hydrocarbon source rocks, reservoirs, and seals.

• It gives us a well-defined methodology for analyzing sedimentary strata and

predicting subsurface lithologies. This methodology integrates data from a variety
of exploration disciplines and tools.

• Sequence stratigraphy is often confused with seismic stratigraphy, which

represents only one of the tools used by the sequence stratigrapher.
• Seismic stratigraphy, however, represents the most important step in the
development of sequence stratigraphy, and without it sequence stratigraphy
could not have evolved to its present state.

• We use the term seismic sequence stratigraphy to emphasize an integrated

approach to the interpretation of sedimentary strata that incorporates seismic,
well log and biostratigraphic data.
 Historical Perspective
Steno’s Laws
• It was recognized in the 1600's that in a sedimentary sequence, the older beds are on the
bottom, and the younger beds are on the top. This has come to be called the Principle of
Superposition. This fairly obvious, but very important fact about layering was first noted by
Nicholaus Steno, and is the first of three principles which have come to be known as Steno's
Laws.

• Steno's second law is the Principle of Original Horizontality, which states that sediments are
deposited in flat, horizontal layers. We can recognize this easily if we consider a sedimentary
environment such as the sea floor or the bottom of a lake. Any storm or flood bringing
sediment to these environments will deposit it in a flat layer on the bottom because of the
sedimentary particles settling under the influence of gravity. As a result, a flat, horizontal
layer of sediment will be deposited.

• Steno's third law is the Principle of Original Lateral Continuity. If we consider again the
sediment being deposited on the seafloor, the sediment will not only be deposited in a flat
layer, it will be a layer that extends for a considerable distance in all directions. In other
words, the layer is laterally continuous.

3
History of Sequence Stratigraphy: Facies
Johannes Walther (1892) proposed what
is now known as “Walther’s Law of
Facies Succession”

"Facies adjacent to one another in a

continuous vertical sequence also
accumulated adjacent to one another
laterally".

4
History of Sequence Stratigraphy: Base Level

1917: Joseph Barrell stated the

most fundamental events in
geologic history--the time-space
distribution of deposition and non-
deposition: the alternating rise
and fall of Base-level.

5
What Really Happened: New Concepts from New
Technology
1951 John L. Rich proposes the
concept of clinoforms…

…recognition of seismic
reflection geometries

6
History of Sequence Stratigraphy: Time Stratigraphy

The term sequence was first applied by L.L.

Sloss in 1948 to describe large-scale rock
or lithostratigraphic units, bounded by major
unconformities, which extended across the
cratonic interior of North America.

1963 Lawrence Sloss recognized 6 major sequences in

North America controlled by eustatic sea level changes
7
 The 1950s
• During the 1950s, stratigraphy expanded rapidly from its
classical base into a modern phase, in which the
interpretation of seismic reflection data became critical.
• The descriptive field methods of geology no longer
provided sufficient details for exploring the subsurface in
search of minerals and hydrocarbon resources.
• Explorationists needed a better understanding of
sedimentary processes and deposits on a scale detailed
enough to find stratigraphic traps using remote sensing
tools.
Official Birth of Sequence Stratigraphy

1977 Peter Vail and Robert Mitchum co-

ordinated the publishing of AAPG Memoir
#26 based on the assumption that a
seismic reflection surface represents a
time line

9
 Principles of Seismic Stratigraphy
• Seismic stratigraphy is a technique for
interpreting stratigraphic information from
seismic data
• The fundamental principle of seismic stratigraphy
is that within the resolution of the seismic
method, seismic reflection follow gross bedding
and as such they approximate timelines
• Main Point: Correlative impedance contrasts
represented on seismic data come from bedding
interfaces and not lateral facies
 Principles of Seismic Stratigraphy

• Seismic stratigraphy was based on the

assumption that seismic reflectors follow
bedding surfaces across facies boundaries
• Seismic reflectors represent time lines or
isochrons.
• Seismic stratigraphy also assumed that
unconformities are surfaces along which
major seismic reflections terminate
 Seimsic reflections follow gross bedding surfaces. Inpedance
contrasts are abrupt across bedding planes and gradual across
facies boundaries
 Vertical Resolution
• Vertical resolution is the minimum vertical
distance between two interfaces needed to
give rise to a single reflection that can be
observed on a seismic section,
• The Ability to see thin beds
 Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution
• Ability to see small lateral changes-faults,
channels, carbonates mounding, local zones of
porosity etc.
• It is separation of features along a seismic
reflection
 Seismic Surveys
• The seismic tools commonly used in the oil
and gas industry are 2-D and 3-D seismic data
• Seismic data are used to:
– Define and map structural folds and faults
– Identify stratigraphic variations and map sedimentary facies
– Infer the presence of hydrocarbons
 Seismic Resolutions
•Seismic data are acquired and processed to produce as wide a range of
frequencies
•It is the highest frequencies that constrain the resolution

Factors that Limit Final resolution of seismic data

•Some Reflectors produce high amplitude reflections known as thin beds

effects or tuning (Bed thickness constraints)
•During acquisition, the Earth acts as a Giant filter that progressively attenuate
the high frequency components of the seismic pulse
•Acoustic velocity increases with depth due to compaction and increased
cementation. This effectively increases the wavelength of the signal and affects
resolution
• if there is High ambient noise on the raw data, the processing stream include
a high cut filter which has the effect of removing the high frequencies
necessary for finer resolution.
 Pre-Drilling Knowledge Exploration

• Structural information obtained from surface seismic data.

• Rough geological information can be provided by nearby wells or
outcrops.
• Approximate depths estimated from surface seismic data.
 Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface

Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones

Incident
waves Reflected
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers
Offshore 3D Acquisition offshore Ghana
 Crossline 470 (East)

N S
Seal (unconformity)

Reservoirs

Source
Regional Line-Offshore Ghana
Onshore Tano-Gaana
 Seismic Stratigraphy
1. Seismic stratigraphy was based on the assumption that
seismic reflectors follow bedding surfaces across facies
boundaries

2. Seismic reflectors represent time lines or isochrons.

3. Seismic stratigraphy also assumed that unconformities are

surfaces along which major seismic reflections terminate.
EXAMPLE
 Improving Resolution of Seismic Data

• Resolution is a measure of our ability to see

two closely spaced objects as separate;
• Ability to see separate reflections from the top
and base of a rock layer; detect the presence
of small channels, faults etc.
• It increases our ability to detect zones of
porosity within a rock layer, see fluid contacts,
delineate permeability barriers etc.
 Seismic Resolution
– 3D seismic Data
Aids in :
• Reservoir facies mapping - reservoir distribution :
lithology,
• isopach etc– Reservoir properties mapping - porosity
• Locating / define fluid contacts
- 4D Seismic
• – Monitoring fluid fronts – Structure & stratigraphic
interpretations
 Vertical & Lateral Resolution
• Vertical resolution: Ability to see thin beds
• Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution: Ability to see
small lateral changes-faults, channels,
carbonates mounding, local zones of porosity
etc. It is separation of features along a seismic
reflection
Levee Channel on Seismic
What do you see?
What do you see?
Vertical resolution
Lateral Resolution
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
 Vertical Seismic Profiling - VSP
• VSP refers to measurements made in a vertical
wellbore using geophones inside the wellbore
and a source at the surface near the well.
• A class of borehole seismic measurements
used for correlation with surface seismic data,
for obtaining images of higher resolution than
surface seismic images
 VSP
(Vertical Seismic Profiling)
EASC 612: Seismic Stratigraphy
Lecture 2
University of Ghana
Second Semester 2014
 Resolution

• In order for us to see our stratigraphic trap on our

seismic section, the dimensions (width and thickness)
of the trap must exceed the limitations of both the
reflection method and the acquisition and processing
parameters we are using.

• Resolution is the ability to observe the slightest changes

in seismic response.

• These subtle changes may indicate stratigraphic traps.

 Resolution

• We express resolution in two directions:

– the lateral direction (x-direction, horizontal, or plan view, i.e.,

width) and

– the vertical direction (z-direction, time, or depth, i.e., thickness).

• There are several ways we can improve the resolution of

our seismic data and better image our stratigraphic target.
Resolution
 Resolution

• If, prior to data acquisition, we know that we are exploring for stratigraphic
traps, we can modify our routine acquisition parameters accordingly.

• For example, we can increase the lateral resolution of our data if we simply
decrease the shot interval and record more traces per horizontal unit of
measure.

• Or we can move the receiver arrays closer together.

• In a 3-D seismic program, these procedures decrease the bin size.

• Similarly, we can improve the vertical resolution of our seismic data by

reducing the sample rate or reducing the size of the charge if we are using
dynamite.
 Crossline 470 (East)

N S
Seal (unconformity)

Reservoirs

Source
 Vertical Resolution

• Vertical resolution is a function of the thickness of the subject layer, the frequency of
the source wavelet as it propagates through the layer, and the velocity of the layer.

• These three parameters help define the two criteria we use to describe the limitations
of vertical resolution: tuning thickness and critical resolution thickness.

• Tuning thickness is the thickness of a bed at which reflections from its upper and lower
interfaces interfere constructively and form one reflector.

• This one reflector is characterized by having a greater amplitude than if the two
reflectors had occurred separately.

• We must be careful not to mistake this increased amplitude associated with tuning as a
bright spot, a local increase in amplitude on a seismic section that may indicate a
hydrocarbon accumulation, causing us to drill a dry well.
Vertical Resolution
Vertical Resolution
EXAMPLE
 Improving Resolution of Seismic Data
• Resolution is a measure of our ability to see two
closely spaced objects as separate;

• Ability to see separate reflections from the top and

base of a rock layer; detect the presence of small
channels, faults etc.

• It increases our ability to detect zones of porosity

within a rock layer, see fluid contacts, delineate
permeability barriers etc.
 Seismic Resolution
– 3D seismic Data
Aids in :
• Reservoir facies mapping - reservoir distribution :
lithology,
• isopach etc– Reservoir properties mapping - porosity
• Locating / define fluid contacts
- 4D Seismic
• – Monitoring fluid fronts – Structure & stratigraphic
interpretations
 Lateral Resolution
• Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution: It is separation
of features along a seismic reflection.

• It is the Ability to see small lateral changes-

faults, channels, carbonates mounding, local
zones of porosity etc.
Levee Channel on Seismic
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
What do you see?
 Basic Concept of Seismic Stratigraphy
• The first phase in seismic stratigraphic studies of a basin fill is to delineate
genetically related units, which are called Depositional Sequences

• One of the basic concepts behind seismic stratigraphy is the observation

that individual sedimentary reflections can be considered timelines.

• Each reflector coincides with a short time period of similar depositional

conditions in a geological sense.

• This timeline concept equally signifies that seismic reflections tend to

cross laterally through different depositional environments and therefore
they can incorporate various lithofacies units.
 Seismic Stratigraphy
• It is the study of stratigraphy and depositional
facies as interpreted from seismic data
• Seismic reflection terminations and
configurations are interpreted as stratification
patterns, and are used for recognition and
correlation of depositional sequences,
interpretation of depositional environment
and estimation of lithofacies
 Seismic Sequence
• A seismic sequence is a depositional sequence
identified on a seismic section
• It is a relatively conformable succession of
reflections on a seismic section, interpreted as
genetically related strata
• Reflection terminations are the principal
criteria for recognition of seismic sequence
boundaries
 Depositional Sequence
• It is a stratigraphic unit composed of a
relatively conformable succession of
genetically related strata and bounded at its
top and base by unconformities or their
correlative conformities
 Sequence Boundaries

Sequence boundaries are defined by:

• unconformities that record subaerial exposure and
erosion,
• correlative marine erosion surfaces (surfaces of
forced regression), and correlative conformities.

• Sequence boundaries form from a relative fall in

sea level.
Seismic Section
Interpreted Section
Seismic reflection Termination Patterns
 Onlap
• It is baselap in which an initially horizontal
stratum laps out against an initially inclined
surface
• Or when an initially inclined stratum laps out
updip against a surface of greater initial
inclination
 Downlap
When an initially inclined stratum terminates downdip
 Toplap
It is a lapout at the upper boundary of a depositional sequence
 Erosional Truncation
• It is the lateral termination of a stratum as a
result of being cut off from its original
depositional limit
• Termination of strata against an overlying
erosional surface
• They are determined where several strata
within the sequence show a systematic
pattern of discordance along a given surface
Identify Terminations
REFLECTION TERMINATIONS ACROSS A SEISMIC SECTION
Seismic reflection Termination Patterns
Reflection Terminations and Depositional Patterns
Reflection Terminations and Depositional Patterns
 2 Exercises
• Identify all reflection terminations
• Give reasons for all indications
• All sequence boundaries, if any and discuss
the depositional patterns
Use colored pencils for reflection terminations
 EASC 612
Exercise 1: Identifying Reflection Terminations
Name:
 EASC 612
Exercise 2: Identifying Reflection Terminations
Name: Date
 Depositional Environments
• The depositional environment can be
• Shallow or deep water.
• Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
• This environment determines many of the reservoir
characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

 Depositional Environments
• Continental deposits are usually dunes.
• A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It
can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
• A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.
 Depositional Environments
• The depositional characteristics of the rocks lead to some of their
properties and the reservoir property.
– The reservoir rock type: clastic or non-clastic.
– The type of porosity (especially in carbonates) is determined by the
environment plus subsequent events.
• The structure of a reservoir can also be determined by deposition; a
river, a delta, a reef etc.
• This can also lead to permeability and producibility of these
properties are often changed by further events.
 Seismic Facies Analysis
• Seismic facies analysis interprets
environmental setting and lithofacies from
seismic data
• Seismic facies units are groups of seismic
reflections whose parameters (configuration,
amplitude, continuity, frequency, internal
velocity) differ from adjacent groups
 Seismic Facies Analysis
• It is the description and geologic interpretation
of seismic reflection parameters including
configuration, continuity, amplitude,
frequency, and interval velocity
• Each parameter provides considerable
information on the geology of the subsurface
Reflection Patterns and their Geologic Significance
Seismic Facies Parameters Geologic Interpretation
Reflection Configuration Bedding Patterns
Depositional Processes
Erosion and Paleo-topography
Fluid Contacts
Reflection Continuity Bedding Continuity
Depositional Processes
Reflection Amplitude Velocity-Density Contrast
Bed Spacing
Fluid Content
Reflection Frequency Bed Thickness
Fluid Content
Interval Velocity Estimation of Lithology
Estimation of Porosity
Fluid Content
Reflection Patterns/Geologic Significance
 Reflection Configurations
(within sequences)
Principal Stratal Configuration EVEN, PARALLEL EVEN, WAVY
• Parallel
• Sub-parallel
• Divergent
Prograding Clinoforms
• Sigmoid
• Oblique
SUB-PARALLEL DIVERGENT
• Complex Sigmoid-Oblique
• Shingled
Chaotic
• Hummocky Clinoform
Modifying Terms
• Even; Wavy; Regular; Irregular; Uniform; Variable
• Hummocky; Lenticular; Disrupted; Contorted; Choatic
REFLECTION FREE
 Seismic Reflection Patterns
(Prograding Clinoforms)
• SIGMOID COMPLEX SIGMOID OBLIQUE

• SHINGLED HUMMOCKY CLINOFORMS

CONFIGURATIONS INTERPRETATION
Parallel/Subparallel (Even, Wavy) Uniform rates of deposition over uniformly
subsidizing shelf or stable basin
Divergent Lateral Variations in rate of deposition or
tilting of the depositional surface
Sigmoid Rapid basin subsidence, and/or rise in sea
level with low sediment supply allowing
top-set beds to aggrade simultaneously
with fore-set progradation
Tangential/Oblique Relatively slow basin subsidence, s still
stand of sea level and high sediment supply
Complex sigmoid-oblique Alternations of sigmoid and oblique
progradational configurations
Shingled Progradation into shallow water
Hummocky Clinoform Reflect small inter-fingering lobes
Chaotic Deformation structures, channel
complexes, highly folded and faulted zones
Reflection free Homogeneous, non-stratified; resulting
from igneous masses, salt features or
homogeneous shales
Seismic Stratigraphic Interpretation Procedure

• Step 1:Recogniton, correlation, and age

determination of seismic sequences

• Step 2: Recognition, mapping and

interpretation of seismic facies

• Step 3: Regional Analysis of relative sea level

changes
 Step 1 :Recogniton, correlation, and age
determination of seismic sequences
• Recognize surfaces of discontinuity from
reflection terminations

• Seismic sequences are delineated and

boundaries established on seismic sections
before ages are determined from well control
or outcrop and seismic prediction
 Step 2: Recognition, mapping and
interpretation of seismic facies
• Seismic facies analysis is the analysis of
reflection configuration and other seismic
parameters within the seismic-sequence
correlation framework
• Parameters include reflection configuration,
amplitude, continuity, frequency, and internal
velocity are interpreted to express certain gross
lithologic, stratification, and depositional
features of the sediment generating the cycles.
 Step 3: Sea Level Analysis
Information necessary to for the preparation of
regional curves of relative sea level includes:
1. Age and duration of depositional sequences
2. Relative nature of distribution of sequences
(restricted to basins and slope or widespread
on shelf)
3. Nature and measurement of coastal onlap of
each sequence
 This Lecture

• Seismic Facies and attribute analysis

• Recognition of stratigraphic surfaces: systems tracts

on seismic data; Parasequences, Lowstand,
Transgressive and Highstand system tracts.

• Multidisciplinary nature of Seismic Stratigraphy:

Exploration and development
 Definition of Seismic Facies

• Seismic Facies are distinguished on the basis of the

following seismic reflection characters:
(1) reflection configuration;
(2) reflection continuity;
(3) reflection amplitude and frequency;
(4) bounding relationships,
that is, types(s) of reflection termination or lateral
change; and
(5) external geometry of the reflection package
Vertical Seismic Section
Seismic Vertical Section
Seismic Vertical Section
Seismic Facies
Reflection Terminations
Identify Terminations and Facies
Reflection Terminations/Boundaries
 Seismic Attribute Analysis

• Seismic attribute analysis helps to enhance

information that might be subtle in traditional seismic,
leading to a better interpretation of the data.

• This enables the interpreter to extract maximum value

from seismic data by providing more detail on the
subtle lithological variations of the reservoir.
 Recognition of stratigraphic
surface

• The key surface that divide stratigraphy into

component systems tracts are:
1. sequence boundaries,
2. transgressive surface,
3. maximun flooding surface and
4. marine onlap/downlap surfaces between the
lowstand fans and the lowstand wedge.
Depositional Sequences
 Sequence Boundary

• It can be recognized on seismic data on two ways:

• From the development of high relief truncation

surface, particularly one that erodes the topsets of
older units; and

• By a downward shift of coastal onlap across the

boundary
Characteristics of Sequence Boundary (SB)
from seismic
Sequence Boundaries
 Transgressive Surface

• Marks the end of lowstand progradation, and the onset

of transgression.

• It need not be associated with any reflection

terminations, but will mark the boundary between a
topset-clinoform interval and an interval of only
topsets.

• Typically, this is the first major flooding surface

following the lowstand systems tract.
Bounding Surfaces
Transgressive Surface (TS)
 Characteristics of Transgressive Surface [TS)
from seismic
• Defined by onlapping reflectors over and onto a surface (SB)
• Bounded below by a transgressive surface
• Bounded above by a maximum flooding surface
• Consist of retrograde topset parasequences
• Often very thin and may contain only a single reflection
 Maximun Flooding Surface
It is recognized on:
• Seismic data as a surface that lie at the boundary
between the underlying Transgressive system tract
(TST) and the overlying High stand system tract
(HST)

• Often expressed as a downlap surface

• Make up condensed section and are usually thin

 Characteristics of Maximum Flooding Surface [mfs)
from seismic

• Often expressed as a downlap surface.

“Sequence Stratigraphy – Basics”

C. G. St. C. Kendall
 Characteristics of Maximum Flooding Surface [mfs)
from seismic

• Defined as lying immediately below the

downlapping reflectors prograding reflectors of
the HST

“Sequence Stratigraphy – Basics”

C. G. St. C. Kendall
Seismic Surface Within A Sequence
 Lowstand Systems Tract

• The lowstand systems tract (LST) is underlain by a sequence boundary

(sb) and overlain by the transgressive surface (ts), the first major flooding
surface of the sequence.
• The LST is deposited during a slow relative rise in sea immediately
following a relative fall in sea level
 Highstand Systems Tract
• Bounded below by a maximum flooding
surface
• Bounded above by a sequence boundary
• Have progradational geometries
Parasequences
 Seismic Stratigraphy in Exploration and
Development
• The application of sequence stratigraphic
concepts, first Proposed during the mid-
1970's, has led to both successes and failures
in petroleum exploration.
 Exploration
• Basin Analysis
• Sedimentology
• Prospect Generation
• Depositional Sequence Analysis
• Facies Analysis
• Reservoir Characterisation
• Petroleum System Analysis
• Attribute Analysis
Vertical Seismic Section
Vertical Seismic Section
Vertical Seismic Section
Vertical Seismic Section
 Recommended procedures for performing
seismic sequence analysis
• Identifying the unconformities in the area of interest. Unconformities are recognized as
surfaces onto which reflectors converge.
• Mark these terminations with arrows.
• Draw the unconformity surface between the onlapping and downlapping reflections
above; and the truncating and toplapping reflections below.
• Extend the unconformity surface over the complete section. If the boundary becomes
conformable, trace its position across the section by visually correlating the reflections.
• Continue identifying the unconformities on all the remaining seismic sections for the
basin.
• Make sure the interpretation ties correctly among all the lines.
• Identify the type of unconformity:
– Sequence boundary: this is characterized by regional onlap above and truncation below.
– Downlap surface: this is characterized by regional downlap.
 Recommended color codes:

• Red: Reflection patterns and reflection terminations.

• Green: Downlap surfaces
• Blue: Transgressive surfaces
• Other colors: Sequence boundaries
• If using only black and white:
• Thin solid lines: Reflection pattens
• Thicker solid lines: Sequence boundaries
• Dashed lines: Downlap surfaces
• Dotted lines: Transgressive surfaces
EASC 612: Seismic Stratigraphy
Lecture 5
University of Ghana
Second Semester 2012

134
 This Lecture

• Multidisciplinary nature of Seismic Stratigraphy:

Exploration and development Seismic Stratigraphy.

• The concept of depositional sequence.

• Theories related to relative changes in coastal onlap
and the construction of depositional sequences.

• Seismic character of deepwater systems.

135
 Recognition of stratigraphic
surface

• The key surface that divide stratigraphy into

component systems tracts are:
1. sequence boundaries,
2. transgressive surface,
3. maximun flooding surface and
4. marine onlap/downlap surfaces between the
lowstand fans and the lowstand wedge.

136
 Seismic Stratigraphy in Exploration and
Development
• The application of sequence stratigraphic
concepts, first Proposed during the mid-
1970's, has led to both successes and failures
in petroleum exploration.
• The application of seismic stratigraphy to
exploration and field development is a natural
consequence of the advent of high-quality 3D
seismic data

137
 Exploration
• Basin Analysis
• Sedimentology
• Prospect Generation
• Depositional Sequence Analysis
• Facies Analysis
• Reservoir Characterisation
• Petroleum System Analysis
• Attribute Analysis
138
 Exploration
• Accurate prediction of stratigraphic
occurrence
• Establishes chrono-stratigraphic framework
for the basin
• Establishing relationship between shallow
marine and continental sediments (highstand)
and deep marine deposits (lowstand)
• Predicting grain sizes and reservoir quality

139
 Depositional Environments
The depositional environment can be
• Shallow or deep water.
• Marine (sea) and lake or continental.
This environment determines many of the reservoir
characteristics

Frigg Gas Field - North Sea

140
 Depositional Environments
• Continental deposits are usually dunes.
• A shallow marine environment has a lot of turbulence hence varied grain sizes. It
can also have carbonate and evaporite formation.
• A deep marine environment produces fine sediments.

141
142
 Development
• Helps define key sealing intervals (condensed
sections) that can segment reservoirs in a field
by acting as pressure and fluid barriers

• Help predict the distribution of producing

elements

143
Distribution of Producing Elements

Highstand Systems Tract

Lowstand Systems Tract

144
Engaging Seismic, Well logs and Outcrops

145
 The Concept of Depositional Sequence
• The fundamental mapping unit of sequence
Stratigraphy is the depositional sequence
• Depositional Sequences can be mapped using
seismic, wireline-log, and outcrop data
• The ideal depositional package for one
depositional sequence would contain lowstand,
transgressive and highstand systems tract in
response to various stages of the sea-level cycle

146
Depositional Sequence

147
 Depositional Sequence
• One Depositional Sequence consist of 3
Systems tract:
1. Lowstand
2. Transgressive
3. Highstand tracts
Deepwater systems are deposited within
Lowstand Systems Tract (also HST and TST)
which consist of three components
148
 Lowstand Systems Tract (LST)
1. Basin Floor Fan
• Sits most basinward
• Sediments deposited within a sequence
during rapid relative sea level drop
• Onlaps onto a sequence boundary
• Most sand-rich portion of the LST

149
 Lowstand Systems Tract (LST)
2. Slope Fan
• Onlaps onto the slopes clinoforms updip
• Downlaps/onlaps onto the basin floor fan
• Consist of channel levee systems
• Sand occurs in channel fill deposits and in
thin beds in overbank deposits

150
 Lowstand Systems Tract (LST)
3. Prograding Complex
• Onlaps onto the sequence boundary updip
and downlaps onto the slope fan/basin floor
fan down dip
• Consist of prograding clinoforms of shallow
to marginal marine deposits (deltaic)
• Depositions begin to occur in the incised
valleys of the shelf

151
 Transgressive & HST

• Relative rapid sea level rise

• Reduced sediment input, little deposition
• Deposition represented by condensed sections of hemipelagic
shale
152
Lowstand Fan

153
Lowstand Wedge

154
Transgressive Systems Tract (TST)

155
Highstand Systems Tract (HST)

156
157
158
Seismic Expressions of sand-rich fans

159
160
161
162
 Application of seismic stratigraphy
• The application to exploration and field development is a
natural consequence of the advent of high-quality 3D
seismic data
• Integrating analyses of plan view (geomorphologic) and
section view (stratigraphic) images significantly enhance
predictions of the spatial and temporal distribution of
subsurface lithology (reservoir, source, and seal)
• Compartmentalization, and stratigraphic trapping
capabilities, as well as enhanced understanding of
process sedimentology

163
Application of seismic stratigraphy
• predictive tool for regional basin analysis, shelf
to basin correlation and reservoir
heterogeneity.
• Using this basic concept a general predictive
stratigraphic model emphasizing the petroleum
system and particularly stressing shelf to basin
correlation can be constructed.
• Integration of data bases, including seismic,
well-log, core, and outcrop
164
Seismic Section

165
Vertical Seismic Section

166
Vertical Seismic Section

167
Vertical Seismic Section

168
Vertical Seismic Section

169
 Changes in Depositional Trends
• 2 main types of changes that results from base
level changes
1. From sedimentation and accumulation to
erosion and vice versa
2. From a shallowing upward trend (regression)
to a deepening upward one (transgressive)
and vice versa

170
 During Base Level Fall & Rise
(6 changes in Depositional Trends)

171
Cycle of Base level Fall & Rise

172
Surfaces in Sequence Stratigraphy

173
Regressive Surface Of Marine Erosion

174
175
Continuous Sea level Fall

176
 Recommended procedures for performing
seismic sequence analysis
• Identifying the unconformities in the area of interest. Unconformities are recognized as
surfaces onto which reflectors converge.
• Mark these terminations with arrows.
• Draw the unconformity surface between the onlapping and downlapping reflections
above; and the truncating and toplapping reflections below.
• Extend the unconformity surface over the complete section. If the boundary becomes
conformable, trace its position across the section by visually correlating the reflections.
• Continue identifying the unconformities on all the remaining seismic sections for the
basin.
• Make sure the interpretation ties correctly among all the lines.
• Identify the type of unconformity:
– Sequence boundary: this is characterized by regional onlap above and truncation below.
– Downlap surface: this is characterized by regional downlap.

177
 Recommended color codes:

• Red: Reflection patterns and reflection terminations.

• Green: Downlap surfaces
• Blue: Transgressive surfaces
• Other colors: Sequence boundaries
• If using only black and white:
• Thin solid lines: Reflection pattens
• Thicker solid lines: Sequence boundaries
• Dashed lines: Downlap surfaces
• Dotted lines: Transgressive surfaces
178
EASC 612: Seismic Stratigraphy
Final Lecture
University of Ghana
Second Semester 2012
Official Birth of Sequence Stratigraphy

1977 Peter Vail and Robert Mitchum co-

ordinated the publishing of AAPG Memoir
#26 based on the assumption that a
seismic reflection surface represents a
time line

180
 Scope of Sequence Stratigraphy
• It is essential to our understanding of the marine sedimentary processes which
produce hydrocarbon source rocks, reservoirs, and seals.

• It gives us a well-defined methodology for analyzing sedimentary strata and

predicting subsurface lithologies. This methodology integrates data from a variety
of exploration disciplines and tools.

• Sequence stratigraphy is often confused with seismic stratigraphy, which

represents only one of the tools used by the sequence stratigrapher.
• Seismic stratigraphy, however, represents the most important step in the
development of sequence stratigraphy, and without it sequence stratigraphy
could not have evolved to its present state.

• We use the term seismic sequence stratigraphy to emphasize an integrated

approach to the interpretation of sedimentary strata that incorporates seismic,
well log and biostratigraphic data.
 Principles of Seismic Stratigraphy
• Seismic stratigraphy is a technique for
interpreting stratigraphic information from
seismic data
• The fundamental principle of seismic stratigraphy
is that within the resolution of the seismic
method, seismic reflection follow gross bedding
and as such they approximate timelines
• Main Point: Correlative impedance contrasts
represented on seismic data come from bedding
interfaces and not lateral facies
 Seismic Stratigraphy
• It is the study of stratigraphy and depositional
facies as interpreted from seismic data
• Seismic reflection terminations and
configurations are interpreted as stratification
patterns, and are used for recognition and
correlation of depositional sequences,
interpretation of depositional environment
and estimation of lithofacies
 Seismic Sequence
• A seismic sequence is a depositional sequence
identified on a seismic section
• It is a relatively conformable succession of
reflections on a seismic section, interpreted as
genetically related strata
• Reflection terminations are the principal
criteria for recognition of seismic sequence
boundaries
 Marine Acquisition System
Boat
Sea Surface

Source
(Airguns) Cable with hydrophones

Incident
waves Reflected
waves

Sea bed

Sedimentary Layers
Vertical Seismic Section
 Seismic Stratigraphy
1. Seismic stratigraphy was based on the assumption that
seismic reflectors follow bedding surfaces across facies
boundaries

2. Seismic reflectors represent time lines or isochrons.

3. Seismic stratigraphy also assumed that unconformities are

surfaces along which major seismic reflections terminate.
 Vertical & Lateral Resolution
• Vertical resolution: Ability to see thin beds
• Lateral (Horizontal) Resolution: Ability to see
small lateral changes-faults, channels,
carbonates mounding, local zones of porosity
etc. It is separation of features along a seismic
reflection
 Reflection Terminations at Sequence
Boundaries
• Top discordant relations include erosional
truncations and toplap
• Erosional truncation implies the deposition of
strata and their subsequent removal along an
unconformity surface
• Toplap is the termination of reflections
interpreted as strata against an overlying surface
as a result of non-deposition (sedimentary
bypassing) and only minor erosion.
 Reflection Terminations at Sequence
Boundaries
• Base discordant relations include seismic onlap and
downlap
• Onlap is a relation in which seismic reflections are
interpreted as initially horizontal strata terminating
progressively against an initially inclined surface
• Downlap is a relation in which seismic reflections
are interpreted as initially inclined strata
terminating downdip against an initially inclined or
horizontal surface
 Seismic Sequence Analysis
• It sub-divides the seismic section into packages
of concordant reflections, which are separated
by surfaces of discontinuity defined by
systematic reflection terminations
• These packages of concordant reflections are
interpreted as depositional sequences
consisting of genetically related strata and
bounded at the top and bottom by
unconformities or their correlative conformities
Seismic Sequence Analysis
 Seismic Facies Analysis
• Seismic facies analysis interprets
environmental setting and lithofacies from
seismic data
• Seismic facies units are groups of seismic
reflections whose parameters (configuration,
amplitude, continuity, frequency, internal
velocity) differ from adjacent groups
 Seismic Facies Analysis
• It is the description and geologic interpretation
of seismic reflection parameters including
configuration, continuity, amplitude,
frequency, and interval velocity
• Each parameter provides considerable
information on the geology of the subsurface
Reflection Patterns and their Geologic Significance
Seismic Facies Parameters Geologic Interpretation
Reflection Configuration Bedding Patterns
Depositional Processes
Erosion and Paleo-topography
Fluid Contacts
Reflection Continuity Bedding Continuity
Depositional Processes
Reflection Amplitude Velocity-Density Contrast
Bed Spacing
Fluid Content
Reflection Frequency Bed Thickness
Fluid Content
Interval Velocity Estimation of Lithology
Estimation of Porosity
Fluid Content
 Reflection Patterns/Geologic Significance

face
ur
i ves
re ss
n s g
Downlap Tra
Highstand System tract
m ity
n for
co
Un

Maximum Flooding Surface

Truncations

Low Stand
 Reflection Configurations
(within sequences)
Principal Stratal Configuration EVEN, PARALLEL EVEN, WAVY
• Parallel
• Sub-parallel
• Divergent
Prograding Clinoforms
• Sigmoid
• Oblique
SUB-PARALLEL DIVERGENT
• Complex Sigmoid-Oblique
• Shingled
Chaotic
• Hummocky Clinoform
Modifying Terms
• Even; Wavy; Regular; Irregular; Uniform; Variable
• Hummocky; Lenticular; Disrupted; Contorted; Choatic
REFLECTION FREE
 Seismic Reflection Patterns
(Prograding Clinoforms)
• SIGMOID COMPLEX SIGMOID OBLIQUE

• SHINGLED HUMMOCKY CLINOFORMS

CONFIGURATIONS INTERPRETATION
Parallel/Subparallel (Even, Wavy) Uniform rates of deposition over uniformly
subsidizing shelf or stable basin
Divergent Lateral Variations in rate of deposition or
tilting of the depositional surface
Sigmoid Rapid basin subsidence, and/or rise in sea
level with low sediment supply allowing
top-set beds to aggrade simultaneously
with fore-set progradation
Tangential/Oblique Relatively slow basin subsidence, s still
stand of sea level and high sediment supply
Complex sigmoid-oblique Alternations of sigmoid and oblique
progradational configurations
Shingled Progradation into shallow water
Hummocky Clinoform Reflect small inter-fingering lobes
Chaotic Deformation structures, channel
complexes, highly folded and faulted zones
Reflection free Homogeneous, non-stratified; resulting
from igneous masses, salt features or
homogeneous shales
 Definition of Seismic Facies

• Seismic Facies are distinguished on the basis of the

following seismic reflection characters:
(1) reflection configuration;
(2) reflection continuity;
(3) reflection amplitude and frequency;
(4) bounding relationships,
that is, types(s) of reflection termination or lateral
change; and
(5) external geometry of the reflection package
Seismic Facies
 Seismic Attribute Analysis

• Seismic attribute analysis helps to enhance

information that might be subtle in traditional seismic,
leading to a better interpretation of the data.

• This enables the interpreter to extract maximum value

from seismic data by providing more detail on the
subtle lithological variations of the reservoir.
Sequence Boundaries
 Transgressive Surface

• Marks the end of lowstand progradation, and the onset

of transgression.

• It need not be associated with any reflection

terminations, but will mark the boundary between a
topset-clinoform interval and an interval of only
topsets.

• Typically, this is the first major flooding surface

following the lowstand systems tract.
 Characteristics of Maximum Flooding Surface [mfs)
from seismic

• Often expressed as a downlap surface.

“Sequence Stratigraphy – Basics”

C. G. St. C. Kendall
 Lowstand Systems Tract

• The lowstand systems tract (LST) is underlain by a sequence boundary

(sb) and overlain by the transgressive surface (ts), the first major flooding
surface of the sequence.
• The LST is deposited during a slow relative rise in sea immediately
following a relative fall in sea level
 Highstand Systems Tract
• Bounded below by a maximum flooding
surface
• Bounded above by a sequence boundary
• Have progradational geometries
 Recognition of stratigraphic
surface

• The key surface that divide stratigraphy into

component systems tracts are:
1. sequence boundaries,
2. transgressive surface,
3. maximun flooding surface and
4. marine onlap/downlap surfaces between the
lowstand fans and the lowstand wedge.

209
Seismic Stratigraphy in Exploration
• Accurate prediction of stratigraphic
occurrence
• Establishes chrono-stratigraphic framework
for the basin
• Establishing relationship between shallow
marine and continental sediments (highstand)
and deep marine deposits (lowstand)
• Predicting grain sizes and reservoir quality

210
Seismic Stratigraphy in Field Development

• Helps define key sealing intervals (condensed

sections) that can segment reservoirs in a field
by acting as pressure and fluid barriers

• Help predict the distribution of producing

elements

211
 The Concept of Depositional Sequence
• The fundamental mapping unit of sequence
Stratigraphy is the depositional sequence
• Depositional Sequences can be mapped using
seismic, wireline-log, and outcrop data
• The ideal depositional package for one
depositional sequence would contain lowstand,
transgressive and highstand systems tract in
response to various stages of the sea-level cycle

212
Depositional Sequence

213
 Depositional Sequence
• One Depositional Sequence consist of 3
Systems tract:
1. Lowstand
2. Transgressive
3. Highstand tracts
Deepwater systems are deposited within
Lowstand Systems Tract (also HST and TST)
which consist of three components
214
 Recommended procedures for performing
seismic sequence analysis
• Identifying the unconformities in the area of interest. Unconformities are recognized as
surfaces onto which reflectors converge.
• Mark these terminations with arrows.
• Draw the unconformity surface between the onlapping and downlapping reflections
above; and the truncating and toplapping reflections below.
• Extend the unconformity surface over the complete section. If the boundary becomes
conformable, trace its position across the section by visually correlating the reflections.
• Continue identifying the unconformities on all the remaining seismic sections for the
basin.
• Make sure the interpretation ties correctly among all the lines.
• Identify the type of unconformity:
– Sequence boundary: this is characterized by regional onlap above and truncation below.
– Downlap surface: this is characterized by regional downlap.
 Recommended color codes:

• Red: Reflection patterns and reflection terminations.

• Green: Downlap surfaces
• Blue: Transgressive surfaces
• Other colors: Sequence boundaries
• If using only black and white:
• Thin solid lines: Reflection pattens
• Thicker solid lines: Sequence boundaries
• Dashed lines: Downlap surfaces
• Dotted lines: Transgressive surfaces