MTS-231

Actuating Systems
Kanwal Naveed
Transformers
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any
accurate model of transformer behavior.

1. Copper (I2R) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the
primary and secondary windings of the transformer. They are proportional
to the square of the current in the windings.

2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the
core of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the voltage
applied to the transformer.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the

rearrangement of the magnetic domains in the core during each half-
cycle. They are a complex, nonlinear function of the voltage applied to
the transformer.

4. Leakage flux. The fluxes ɸLP and ɸLS which escape the core and pass
through only one of the transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These
escaped fluxes produce a self-inductance in the primary and secondary
coils, and the effects of this inductance must be accounted for.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

• The easiest effect to model is the copper losses.

• Copper losses are resistive losses in the primary and secondary windings of the
transformer core.
• They are modeled by placing a resistor Rp in the primary circuit of the transformer and a
resistor Rs in the secondary circuit.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER
• The magnetization current im is a current proportional (in the unsaturated region) to
the voltage applied to the core and lagging the applied voltage by 90°
• so it can be modeled by a reactance XM connected across the primary voltage source.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

• The core- loss current ih+e is a current proportional to the voltage applied to
the core that is in phase with the applied voltage, so it can be modeled by a
resistance RC connected across the primary voltage source.
THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A TRANSFORMER

• The currents are really nonlinear, so the inductance XM and the resistance RC are,
at best, approximations of the real excitation effects.
Transformer-Taps
• A tap changes the voltage ratio of a transformer so that its secondary voltage
stays at nominal.
• On large power transformers, taps on the primary are used to offset any higher
or lower input voltages.
• These tap connections are usually set at the factory for nominal line voltage.

• If the voltage at the site is different,

the taps are changed accordingly
Transformer Taps & Voltage Regulation
• Distribution Transformers have a series of taps in windings, which
permit small changes in turns ratio of the transformer after leaving
factory.
• A typical distribution transformer has four taps in addition to
nominal setting, each has a spacing of 2.5% of full load voltage
with the adjacent tap.
• This provides possibility for voltage adjustment below or above
nominal setting by 5%.
Transformer Taps & Voltage Regulation
Example: A 500 kVA, 13200/480 V distribution transformer has 4,
2.5% taps on primary winding. What are the voltage ratios?
Solution: Five possible voltage ratings are:
• +5% tap 13860/480 V
• +2.5% tap 13530/480 V
• Nominal rating 13200/480 V
• -2.5% tap 12870/480 V
• -5% tap 12540/480 V
Transformer Taps & Voltage Regulation
• Taps on transformer permit transformer to be adjusted in field to accommodate
variations in local voltages.
• However, these taps can not be changed when power is being applied to the
transformer.
• Sometimes voltage varies widely with load; while normal loads should be
supplied an essentially constant voltage.
• One solution is using special transformer called tap changing under load
(TCUL) transformer or voltage regulator.
• A TCUL transformer has the ability to change taps while power is connected to
it.
A Variable-Voltage Autotransformer
• A voltage regulator is a TCUL transformer with built-in voltage sensing
circuitry that automatically changes taps to preserve system voltage constant
 Autotransformer
• On some occasions it is desirable to change voltage level only by a
small amount. i.e. may need to increase voltage from 110 to 120 V
or from 13.2 to 13.8 kV.
• This may be due to small voltage drops that occur in a power
system with long lines.
• In such cases it is very expensive to hire a two full winding
transformer, however a special transformer called autotransformer
can be used.
 Autotransformer
• An Auto Transformer is a transformer with only one winding
wound on a laminated core.
• An auto transformer is similar to a two winding transformer but
differ in the way the primary and secondary winding are
interrelated.
• A part of the winding is common to
both primary and secondary sides.
• No separate winding so no isolation
• Size of transformer also becomes small
 Autotransformer

• The turn ratio formula remains same

Autotransformer (Step-up)
In step-up autotransformer:
VC / VSE = NC / NSE (1)
NC IC = NSE ISE (2)
Voltages in coils are related to terminal voltages
as follows:
VL=VC (3)
VH=VC+VSE (4)
Current in coils are related to terminal currents
as:
IL=IC+ISE (5)
IH=ISE (6)
Voltage & Current Relations in Autotransformer
Voltage relations:
• VH=VC+VSE
• since VC/VSE=NC/NSE  VH=VC+ NSE/NC . VC
• Noting that: VL=VC
 VH=VL+ NSE/NC . VL= (NSE+NC)/NC . VL
VL / VH = NC / (NSE+NC) (7)

Current relations:
• IL=IC+ISE also from Eq.(2)  IC=(NSE / NC)ISE
• IL= (NSE / NC)ISE + ISE, since ISE=IH
 IL= (NSE / NC)IH +IH = (NSE + NC)/NC . IH
IL / IH = (NSE + NC)/NC (8)
Autotransformer
Apparent Power Rating Advantage of Autotransformer
• Not all power traveling from primary to secondary in autotransformer passes
through windings.
• Therefore if a conventional transformer is reconnected as an autotransformer, it
can handle much more power than its original rating.

• The input apparent power to the step-up

autotransformer is :
Sin=VLIL
• And the apparent output power is:
Sout=VH IH
Autotransformer
• And :
Sin=Sout=SIO
• Apparent power of transformer windings:
SW= VCIC=VSE ISE
• This apparent power can be reformulated:
SW= VCIC=VL(IL-IH) =VLIL-VLIH

• Employing Eq.(8)  SW= VLIL-VLIL (NC/(NSE+NC))

=VLIL [(NSE+NC)-NC] /(NSE+NC)]=SIO (NSE /(NSE+NC))
SIO / SW = (NSE+NC )/ NSE (9)
Autotransformer
• SIO / SW = (NSE+NC )/ NSE ,
describes apparent power rating advantage of
autotransformer over a conventional transformer.
• The smaller the series winding the greater the advantage.

Example :
A 5000 kVA autotransformer connecting a 110 kV system to a 138 kV system has
an NC/NSE of 110/28. For this autotransformer actual winding rating is:
SW = SIO NSE/(NSE+NC)
= 5000 (28/ 28+110)
=1015 kVA
Autotransformer
• It is not normally possible to reconnect an ordinary transformer as an
autotransformer due to the fact that insulation of L.V. side may not
withstand full output voltage of autotransformer connection.
• Common practice is to use autotransformer when two voltages are
fairly close because it gives more power rating advantage.
• Also used as variable transformers, where L.V. tap moves up & down
the winding.
Transformer Efficiency (Home Task)
• Efficiency (η) is the ratio of the power out to the power in
• η of an ideal transformer (no power losses)
 Pin = Pout = VPIP cos P = VSIS cos S
 Sout = SIN = VPIP = VSIS
Pout
 real   100%
Pin
• η of a real transformer (power losses)
Pout
 real   100%
Pout  Ploss
VS I S cos 
 real  100%
PCu  Pcore  VS I S cos 
The Per-Unit System of Measurement
• An approach to solving circuits containing transformers which
eliminates the need for explicit voltage-level conversions at every
transformer in the system.
• This method don’t require impedance transformations
• This method of calculation is known as the per-unit (pu) system
of measurements.
• per-unit system related to the device's ratings.
The Per-Unit System of Measurement
• In the per-unit system, the voltages, currents, powers, impedances,
and other electrical quantities are not measured in their usual SI
units (volts, amperes, watts, ohms, etc.).
• each electrical quantity is measured as a decimal fraction of some
base level.

where "actual value" is a value in volts, amperes, ohms, etc.

The Per-Unit System of Measurement
• It is customary to select two base quantities to define a given per-
unit system.
• The ones usually selected are voltage and power (or apparent
power).
Analysis of Circuits containing Ideal Transformers
Example 2.1 A generator rated at 480V, 60 Hz is connected a transmission line with an impedance of
0.18 + j0.24 . At the end of the transmission line there is a load of 4 + j3 .

b. Suppose a 1:10 step-up transformer is placed at the generator end of the transmission line and a
10:1 step-down transformer is placed at the load end of the line. What will the load voltage be now?
What will the transmission line losses be now?
ip  t  1 vp  t  Np
ZL ’ = a Z L
2 Np ip (t) = Ns is (t)    a
is  t  a vs  t  Ns
 Example 2-3
• A simple power system is shown in Figure 2- 22. This system
contains a 480-V generator connected to an ideal I: 10 step-up
transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20: I step-down
transformer, and a load. The impedance of the transmission line is
20 + j60 Ω, and the impedance of the load is 10-30°Ω. The base
values for this system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the
generator.
 Example 2-3

• Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent

power at every point in the power system.
• Region-1
• Region-2: The turns ratio of transformer T1 is a = 1/10 = 0.1

Given
• Region-3: The turns ratio of transformer T2 is a = 20/1 = 20

Given
• (b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.

To convert a power system to a per-unit system, each

component must be divided by its base value in its region of
the system.
• The generator’s per-unit voltage is its actual value divided
by its base value:
• The transmission line’s per-unit impedance is its actual
value divided by its base value:
• The loads per-unit impedance is also given by actual value
divided by base value:
 Advantages of Per Unit System
• While performing calculations, referring quantities from one side of the transformer to the
other side serious errors may be committed. This can be avoided by using per unit system.
• Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in per unit do not change when they are
referred from one side of transformer to the other side. This is a great advantage.
• Per unit impedances of electrical equipment of similar type usually lie within a narrow range,
when the equipment ratings are used as base values.
• Transformer connections do not affect the per unit values.
• Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and transformers in per unit or
percent of name plate ratings.
• Transformers can be replaced by their equivalent series impedances