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1. Introduction 4. Antennas
± Electromagnetic wave
± Characteristics
2. Basic principles
± Types of antennas
± Phase difference
± Polarisation
± Frequencies
± Radio signal classification 5. Wave propagation
± Factors
3. Modulation
± Surface propagation
± AM
± Sky propagation
± FM
± Space propagation
± Pulse
± Doppler effect
1- 

± The wave travels at a constant speed.

± The form of the wave moves outward.

± The wave becomes smaller as it moves away

from the source.

± The wave is sinusoidal.


- |
  

± - a complete sequence of positive and

negative values (passing twice through one point).
± v
 (Ȝ)- the physical distance traveled by a
radio wave during one cycle of transmission.
±  (A)- the maximum deflection/height of the
wave. It can be positive or negative.
± · (c)- the speed and direction of movement
through a given medium. Is the speed of the light
(300 000 000 m/sec. = 162 000 NM/sec.)

c = 300 · 106 m/s

c = Ȝ · f = cte

±  (T)- the duration of one cycle. T= 1/f

±   (ij)- the fraction of one wavelength expressed
in degrees.
± ° (f)- the number of cycles
occurring in one second in a radio wave.
Expressed in Hertz (Hz).
1hz = 1 cycle/sec.
Kilo- Khz = 103 hz
Mega- Mhz = 103 Khz = 106 hz
Giga- Ghz = 103 Mhz = 106 Khz = 109 hz

± The higher the frequency, the shorter the

wavelength, and vice versa.
  

± Formulas-
 1/f
Ȝ ! /f
 Ȝ ! f 
 "## ! 1#$ /

1- 
°°  

± The angular difference between the corresponding

points of two cycles of equal wavelength, which is
measurable in degrees.

± Two signals in phase-

± Two signals out of phase-


- ° % 

± ·ery Low Frequency (·LF) 3 ± 30 Khz

± Low Frequency (LF) 30 ± 300 Khz
± Medium Frequency (MF) 300 ± 3000 Khz
± High Frequency (HF) 3 ± 30 Mhz
± ·ery High Frequency (·HF) 30 ± 300 Mhz
± Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 ± 3000 Mhz
± Super High Frequency (SHF) 3 ± 30 Ghz
± Extremely High Frequency (EHF) 30 ± 300 Ghz

"-  
&  

° 

± A radio signal may be classified by three

symbols in accordance with the ITU radio
regulation.
± First symbol indicates the type of modulation of
the main carrier.
± Second symbol indicates the nature of the signal
modulating the main carrier.
± Third symbol indicates the nature of the
information to be transmitted.
"- M 

± Modulation- is the technical term for the

process of impressing and transporting
information by radio waves.

± Carrier wave- is the radio wave acting as the

carrier or transporter.

± Keying- Interrupting the carrier wave to break

it into dots and dashes. Morse Code.
"1- M  M 

± M- The information is impressed onto the

carrier wave by altering the amplitude of the
carrier.

± Used in ADF
"
- ° % 
M 

± °M- The information is impressed onto the

carrier wave by altering the frequency of the
carrier.

± Used in · R, Radio Altimeters, Doppler.

""- 
M 

± 
M - A modulation form used in

radar, by transmitting short pulses followed by larger
interruptions.

±   M - used in GPS where the phase of

the carrier wave is reversed.
þ-  

'(
'' 'f'''f'


' '' '' 'f'
 '(

þ1-  M &  v ·

± An Electromagnetic wave consists of an

oscillating electric (E) field and an oscillating
magnetic (H) field which propagates at speed
of light.

± The E and H fields are perpendicular to each

other. The oscillations are perpendicular to
the propagation direction and are in phase.
þ
-  
   


± The simplest type of antenna is a dipole which is a

wire of length equal to one half of the wavelength.**

± In a wire which is fed with an AC (alternating

current), some of the power will radiate into space.
± In a wire parallel to the wire fed with an AC but
remote from it, an AC will be induced.
± Aerial feeders are the connection between the
transmitter/receiver and the aerial. The type of
feeder depends upon the frequency to be used.
þ"- 

°  

± The common different kinds of directional
antennas are-

± Loop antenna used in old ADF receivers.

± Parabolic antenna used in weather radars.
± Slotted planar array used in more modern
weather radars.
± Helical antenna used in GPS transmitters.
þþ-  


± The polarisation of an electromagnetic wave

describes the orientation of the plane of
oscillation of the electrical component of the
wave with regard to its direction of
propagation.
± A
    antenna transmits an
electromagnetic wave with the a
 
 

to the Earth's surface. Simple vertical antennas can
be used to provide mnidirectional / all directions
communication.

± A )    antenna transmits a radio

wave with the a
 

 to the Earth's surface.
A simple horizontal antenna is bi-directional. This
characteristic is useful when you desire to minimize
interference from certain directions.
_- v ·  & 
_1- ° 
  & 

± Reflection- Some surfaces exhibit reflective

properties to radio energy, accepting the
incoming signal and then re-radiating it.
± Refraction- The speed of the radio wave is
affected differently on either side of the
centreline of the ray. Bends the wave.
± Diffraction- A radio wave travels close to the
Earth¶s surface. The signal is attenuated and
slowed. Bends and follows the Earth¶s
curvature.

± Attenuation of an RF signal is the reduction

in signal strength due to absorption,
scattering or dispersion and diffraction.
_
-
°   & 

± The f  (
 travel along the surface

of the Earth, attenuates quite quickly owing
to absorption.
_"-
*
 & 

± The  (
 are refracted by the ionosphere and

returned to Earth. It allows the signal field to carry
over much larger distances than the surface wave.
±  is the ionized component of the
Earth¶s upper atmosphere.
± It is from 60 to 400 km above the surface.
± It is vertically structured in three regions or
layers (layers D, E and F) and their depth
varies with time.
± The electromagnetic waves refracted from
the E and F layers of the ionosphere are the
sky waves.
± Skip distance- is the distance between the
transmitter and the point on the surface of
the Earth where the first sky return arrives.
± Skip zone- is the distance between the limit
of the surface wave and the sky wave.
± Fading- When a receiver picks up the sky
signal and the surface signal, the signals will
interfere each other causing the signals to be
cancelled out.
_þ-
  & 

± The   (
 are line of sight, they

travel through the air directly from the
transmitter to the receiver.
__-    °° 

± The Doppler effect is the phenomena that the

frequency of an electromagnetic wave will
increase or decrease if there is relative
motion between the transmitter and the
receiver.

± The frequency will increase if the transmitter

and receiver are converging.
± The frequency will decrease if they are
diverging.