Database Systems
by Neil A. Basabe
Objectives
In this chapter, you will learn:
• The difference between data and information
• What a database is, the various types of databases,
and why they are valuable assets for decision making
• The importance of database design
• How modern databases evolved from file systems
• About flaws in file system data management
• The main components of the database system
• The main functions of a database management
system (DBMS)
Why Databases?
• Databases solve many of the problems
encountered in data management
• Used in almost all modern settings involving
data management:
• Business
• Research
• Administration
• Important to understand how databases work
and interact with other applications
Some common uses of database
systems:
1. Purchases from the supermarket
2. Purchases using your credit card
3. Booking a holiday at the travel agents
4. Using the local library
5. Taking out insurance
6. Renting a video
7. Using the Internet
8. Studying at university
Data vs. Information
• Data are raw facts
• Information is the result of processing raw data to reveal
meaning
• Information requires context to reveal meaning
• Raw data must be formatted for storage, processing, and
presentation
• Data are the foundation of information, which is the bedrock of
knowledge
• Data: building blocks of information
• Information produced by processing data
• Information used to reveal meaning in data
• Accurate, relevant, timely information is the key to good decision
making
• Good decision making is the key to organizational survival
File-based system - A collection of application programs that
perform services for the end-users such as the production of
reports. Each program defines and manages its own data.
Limitations of the File-Based Approach:
1. Separation and isolation of data
2. Duplication of data
3. Data dependence
4. Incompatible file formats
5. Fixed queries/proliferation of application programs
All the above limitations of the file-based approach can
be attributed to two factors:
(1) the definition of the data is embedded in the application
programs, rather than being stored separately and
independently;
(2) there is no control over the access and manipulation of
data beyond that imposed by the application programs.
Structural and Data Dependence
Structural dependence: access to a file is
dependent on its own structure
All file system programs must be modified
to conform to a new file structure
Structural independence: change file
structure without affecting data access
Data dependence: data access changes when
data storage characteristics change
Data independence: data storage
characteristics do not affect data access
Structural and Data Dependence (cont'd.)
Practical significance of data dependence is
difference between logical and physical format
Logical data format: how human views the data
Physical data format: how computer must work
with data
Each program must contain:
◦ Lines specifying opening of specific file type
◦ Record specification
◦ Field definitions
Data Redundancy
Filesystem structure makes it difficult to
combine data from multiple sources
Vulnerable to security breaches
Organizational structure promotes storage of
same data in different locations
Islands of information
Data stored in different locations is unlikely
to be updated consistently
Data redundancy: same data stored
unnecessarily in different places
Data Redundancy (cont'd.)
Data inconsistency: different and conflicting
versions of same data occur at different
places
Data anomalies: abnormalities when all
changes in redundant data are not made
correctly
◦ Update anomalies
◦ Insertion anomalies
◦ Deletion anomalies
Lack of Design and Data-Modeling Skills
Most users lack the skill to properly design
databases, despite multiple personal
productivity tools being available
Data-modeling skills are vital in the data
design process
Good data modeling facilitates
communication between the designer, user,
and the developer
Database
A shared collection of logically related data, and a description of this
data, designed to meet the information needs of an organization.
◦ End-user data: raw facts of interest to end user
◦ Metadata: data about data
Provides description of data characteristics and relationships in
data
Complements and expands value of data
Database Management System (DBMS)
A software system that enables users to define, create, maintain,
and control
access to the database.
The DBMS is the software that interacts with the users’
application programs and the database.
Typically, a DBMS provides the
following facilities:
1. It allows users to define the database, usually through a
Data Definition Language (DDL). The DDL allows users to
specify the data types and structures and the constraints
on the data to be stored in the database.
2. It allows users to insert, update, delete, and retrieve data
from the database, usually through a Data Manipulation
Language (DML). Having a central repository for all data
and data descriptions allows the DML to provide a general
inquiry facility to this
data, called a query language.
3. It provides controlled access to the database.
Views
A DBMS provides another facility known as a view mechanism,
which allows each user to have his or her own view of the
database (a view is in essence some subset of the database).
As well as reducing complexity by letting users see the
data in the way they want to see it, views have several
other benefits:
1. Views provide a level of security.
2. Views provide a mechanism to customize the appearance of
the database.
3. A view can present a consistent, unchanging picture of the
structure of the database, even if the underlying database is
changed.
Components of the DBMS Environment
1. Hardware
2. Software
3. Data
The structure of the database is called the
schema.
4. Procedures
5. People
DBMS Functions
1. Data dictionary management
2. Data storage management
3. Data transformation and presentation
4. Security management
5. Multiuser access control
6. Backup and recovery management
7. Data integrity management
8. Database access languages and application
programming interfaces
9. Database communication interfaces
Roles in the Database Environment
1. Data and Database Administrator
Data Administrator (DA) – is responsible for the management of the
data resource including database planning, development and
maintenance of standards, policies and procedures, and
conceptual/logical database
design. The DA consults with and advises senior managers,
ensuring that the direction of database development will ultimately
support corporate objectives.
Database Administrator (DBA) - is responsible for the physical
realization of the database, including physical database design and
implementation, security and integrity control, maintenance of the
operational system, and ensuring satisfactory performance of the
applications for users. The role of the DBA is more technically
oriented than the role of the DA, requiring detailed knowledge of the
target DBMS and the system environment.
2. Database designer
Logical database designer - is concerned with identifying the
data (that is, the entities and attributes), the relationships
between the data, and the constraints on the data that is
to be stored in the database. The logical database designer
must have a thorough and complete understanding of the
organization’s data and any constraints on this data (the
constraints are sometimes called business rules).
Physical database designer - decides how the logical database
design is to be physically realized. This involves:
mapping the logical database design into a set of tables and
integrity constraints;
selecting specific storage structures and access methods for the
data to achieve good performance;
designing any security measures required on the data.
3. Application Developers
Once the database has been implemented, the application
programs that provide the
required functionality for the end-users must be implemented. This
is the responsibility of
the application developers.
4. End-Users
The end-users are the ‘clients’ for the database, which has been
designed and implemented, and is being maintained to serve their
information needs.
Naïve users - are typically unaware of the DBMS. They access the
database through specially written application programs that
attempt to make the operations as simple as possible.
Sophisticated users – is familiar with the structure of the database
and the facilities offered by the DBMS. Sophisticated end-users
may use a high-level query language such as SQL to perform the
required operations.
History of DBMSs:
• The roots of the DBMS lie in file-based systems.
• The hierarchical and CODASYL systems represent the
• first-generation of DBMSs.
• The hierarchical model is typified by IMS (Information
Management System) and the network or CODASYL model
by IDS (Integrated Data Store), both developed in the mid-
1960s.
• The relational model, proposed by E. F. Codd in 1970,
represents the second-generation of DBMSs. It has
• had a fundamental effect on the DBMS community and
there are now over one hundred relational DBMSs.
• The third-generation of DBMSs are represented by the
Object-Relational DBMS and the Object-Oriented
• DBMS.
Advantages of DBMSs:
Disadvantages of DBMSs:
Types of Databases
Databases can be classified according to:
Number of users
Database location(s)
Expected type and extent of use
Single-user database supports only one user
at a time
Desktop database: single-user; runs on PC
Multiuser database supports multiple users at
the same time
Workgroup and enterprise databases
Types of Databases (cont’d.)
Centralized database: data located at a single
site
Distributed database: data distributed across
several different sites
Operational database: supports a company’s
day-to-day operations
Transactional or production database
Data warehouse: stores data used for tactical
or strategic decisions
Types of Databases (cont'd.)
Unstructured data exist in their original state
Structured data result from formatting
Structure applied based on type of
processing to be performed
Semistructured data have been processed to
some extent
Extensible Markup Language (XML) represents
data elements in textual format
XML database supports semistructured XML
data
Why Database Design Is Important
Database design focuses on design of
database structure used for end-user data
Designer must identify database’s expected
use
Well-designed database:
Facilitates data management
Generates accurate and valuable
information
Poorly designed database:
Causes difficult-to-trace errors
References:
1. Coronel, C., & Morris, S. (2019). Database systems: design, implementation, and management. Boston: Cengage.
2. Connolly, T. M., & Begg, C. E. (2015). Database systems: A practical approach to design, implementation, and
management (Fourth ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
