HEAT RATE & ITS EFFECT on

Thermal Power Station

Presented By :

11-07-1976
Heat Rate

Heat Rate Basics:

 Indicator of power plant performance/efficiency
 Electrical energy converted to heat energy : 1 kWh 860 kcal
 Heat energy converted to Electrical energy: 2300 kcal 1 kWh
 Due to losses during power generation process in condenser, boiler, etc.
 Heat Rate is heat (kcal) required to generate 1 kWh of electrical energy
 Efficiency = output/input where as Heat Rate = Input (kcal)/Output (kWh)
 Thus it is the inverse of efficiency
 Thermal Efficiency = (860/HR) * 100
For e g. = (860/2300) * 100 = 37.4%

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Heat Rate

GROSS & NET HEAT RATE: Gross Net

Output Output
(kWh) (kWh)
Heat Input (kcal)
BOILER TURBINE
Coal Cons.
(kg/hr) APC
Coal GCV BOILER TURBINE (kWh)
(kcal/kg) EFF. HR
GHR

NHR

Gross Heat Rate = Coal Cons. * Coal GCV /Gross Generation  Direct
Method

Gross Heat Rate = Turbine Heat Rate (kcal/kWh)  Indirect

Method (%Boiler Efficiency/100)

Net Heat Rate = Coal Cons. * Coal GCV /Net Generation  Direct
Method

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 Boiler Efficiency

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Boiler Efficiency :

 Heat absorbed by working fluid as a %age of heat input to the boiler

 Typical boiler efficiency value: 85%-90%
 Boiler efficiency can be determined by two methods
1. Direct Method/Input Output Method
2. Indirect Method/Loss Method

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Coal Analysis:

AS RECEIVED BASIS

AIR DRY BASIS

DRY BASIS
DRY ASH FREE BASIS

A C H O N S IM SM
ASH FC VM M

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Coal Analysis:

PROXIMATE ANALYSIS:
VM+FC+TM+A = 100

ULTIMATE ANALYSIS:
C+H+O+N+S+A+TM = 100

Conversion Formulas from Proximate to Ultimate:

%C= 0.97*FC+0.7*(VM+0.1*A)-TM*(0.6-0.01*TM)
%H= 0.036*FC+0.086*(VM-0.1*A)- 0.0035*TM²*(1-0.02*TM)
%N= 2.1-0.02*VM
%O= 100-(C+H+N+S+TM+A)

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Boiler Efficiency :

 Heat absorbed by working fluid as a %age of heat input to the boiler

 Typical boiler efficiency value: 85%-90%
 Boiler efficiency can be determined by two methods
1. Direct Method/Input Output Method
2. Indirect Method/Loss Method

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Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

Steam
Flue
Gas

Fuel
Boiler
+ Air

Water

Efficiency = Heat addition to Steam x 100

Gross Heat in Fuel
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Boiler Efficiency: Direct Method

heat output (heat absorbed by steam) x100

heat input (heat supplied by fuel)

Steam flow rate x (Steam enthalpy-FW enthalpy) x100

Fuel firing rate x GCV

Direct Method is not generally preferred for performance test:

 It’s difficult to measure coal flow & GCV on real time basis
accurately
 Extent and nature of individual losses is not quantified
 Error in parameter measurement proportionally affect result i.e.
1% error in parameter affect efficiency by 1%

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 Boiler Efficiency: In-Direct Method

1. Dry Flue gas loss

2. H2 loss
6. Radiation 3. Moisture in fuel
4. Moisture in air
5. CO loss

7. Fly ash loss

Fuel + Air Boiler Flue gas

8. Bottom ash loss

Efficiency = 100 – (1+2+3+4+5+6+7+8)

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Boiler Efficiency: In-Direct Method

Boiler Efficiency = 100-Losses in %

Advantages of Indirect Method:

 More accurate for field testing. Total losses make a relatively small
portion of the total heat input (~13%), an error in measurement does
not appreciably affect the efficiency calculations i.e. 1% error in
parameter measurement affect 0.13% in boiler efficiency
 Identifies exactly where the heat losses are occurring which is used
for corrective actions to be taken for reduction of losses.

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Boiler Efficiency: Data Measurement
Parameters required for computing boiler efficiency:

APH flue gas Inlet O2 / CO2 / CO /

APH flue gas Inlet and outlet temp. (grid method)
APH primary / secondary air temp. inlet / outlet

Totalair flow / secondary air flow

Ambient dry/wet bulb temp./ ambient pressure

Proximate & ultimate analysis & GCV of coal on ARB basis

Un-burnt carbon in bottom ash and fly ash

Note:
Shoot blowing and blow down should not be done during efficiency test

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 Dry Flue Gas Loss (Controllable):

This is the heat carried away by flue gas at APH outlet

DFG Loss = Mfg * Cpfg * (Tfg – Tair)………………kcal/kg coal
= (DFG Loss/GCV of fuel) * 100………%
 Dry flue gas loss can be reduced by:
 Boiler operation at optimum excess air
 Cleanliness of boiler surfaces
 Good combustion of fuel
 Reduction of tempering air to mill.
 Reduction in air ingress to boiler system
 Cleaning of air heater surfaces and heating elements

Typically 20°C increase in flue gas temp. ~ 1% reduction in boiler

efficiency

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Wet Flue Gas Loss (Un-Controllable):

 This loss is due to the evaporation and heating of

1. Water formed due to burning of Hydrogen in the fuel and,
2. Moisture (Inherent and surface moisture) present in the fuel
 WFG Loss = (M+9H) * {584 + Cpfg * (Tfg – Tair)} kcal/kg coal
= (WFG Loss/GCV of fuel) * 100… %
 Wet Flue Gas Loss can be reduce by:
 This loss is not controllable as it mainly depends upon the fuel characteristics
like hydrogen and inherent moisture in the fuel
 Primarily by controlling flue gas temp.
 By controlling the surface moisture in the coal by judicious water spray in
coal yard

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CO Loss (Controllable)

CO  Loss (Controllable):


 This loss is due to formation of CO instead of CO 2 due to partial
combustion
C+ O2 = CO+ heat 8084 kcal/kg of Carbon
2C+ O2 = 2CO + heat 2430kcal / kg of Carbon
Loss of 5654kcal for each kg of CO formed

 CO Loss = (%CO * C) * 5654……………………..kcal/kg coal

(% CO+%CO)
= (CO Loss/GCV of fuel) * 100………..…………%

 CO Loss can be reduce by:

 Supplying sufficient air for the fuel combustion

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 Un-burnt Carbon in Ash Loss (Controllable):

 Amount of un-burnt in FA & BA is a measure of effectiveness of

combustion process in general and mills / burners in particular.
 Ratio of FA to BA is around 80:20
 Analysis of UBC in FA & BA is done to estimate heat loss
 UB Carbon Loss = UB Carbon /kg coal * 8084…........kcal/kg coal
Where UB Carbon/ kg coal = (UBC in FA * FA/kg coal ) + (UBC in BA * BA/kg coal)
UB Carbon Loss = (UB Carbon Loss/GCV of fuel) * 100….……%

 Un-burnt Carbon Loss can be reduce by:

 Maintaining coal fineness from pulverizer
 Providing sufficient excess air in the combustion zone

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Moisture in Air Loss (Un-Controllable):

 Air used for combustion has some amount of moisture which evaporates
and cause heat loss
Moisture in Air Loss = AAS * Hf * Cpfg * (Tfg – Tair)} kcal/kg coal
= (Moist. in Air Loss/GCV of fuel)*100 %
Where AAS-Actual mass of Air Supplied kg/kg coal, H f -Humidity Factor kg/kg dry air

For, AAS /kg of coal = Theoretical Air (1+Excess Air) /100

Theoretical Air = (11.43 * %C) + 34.5 (%H2 - %O2/8)+(4.32*%S)

100
 This loss is un-controllable

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 Radiation Loss (Controllable):

 Normally given in PG Test/Design documents & same is consider for boiler

efficiency calculation
 Actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of
particular emissivity of various surfaces.
 For Power Station Boiler Radiation Loss is 0.4% - 1%

 Radiation Loss = 0.548*[(TS/55.55)4 - (Ta/55.55)4]

(W/m2) +1.957 (TS-Ta)1.25*sqrt. [(196.85Vm+68.9)]
Where: Ts-Surface Temp. (°K), Ta-Ambient Temp. (°K), Vm- Wind Velocity (m/sec)

 By using Infrared Thermo Vision Camera, Insulation surface temperature

survey can be done which gives idea about insulation condition
 Normally surface temp. below 60°C indicates good insulation condition

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Exploration of energy conservation possibilities in boiler
systems:
 Steam and water parameters (flow, pressure and temperature)
 Air and gas parameters (flow, pressure and temperature)
 Primary and secondary air ratios and temperatures
 Air infiltration in to boilers
 Un-burnt loss reduction
 Combustion control – boiler excess air, O2 Measurement
 Dry flue gas losses
 Insulation
 Air infiltration to flue gases
 Blow down and its control
 Water quality & its control
 Coal quality and performance of coal mills
 Super heater and reheated performance
 Soot blowers performance

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Exploration of energy conservation possibilities in Boiler
Systems:

 Combustion control-boiler excess air, O2 Measurement inaccuracy

 Steam and water parameters (flow, pressure and temperature)
 Air and gas parameters (flow, pressure and temperature)
 Loading on ID, FD and PA fans
 Fouling of boiler heating surfaces
 Air infiltration in to boilers
 Un burnt loss reduction/mill fineness
 Soot blowers performance
 Blow down and its control & DM water consumption
 Air Infiltration, Air & Gas side efficiency, Performance of APH

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 Turbine Heat Rate

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Turbine Cycle Heat Rate Calculation:

 Calculate heat added to each element in cycle used for power

generation
 Ratio of heat input to the turbine cycle to gross generation

FW-ECO MS
Steam Electrical
SH Spray Output

BOILER TURBINE
HRH
CRH Steam

RH Spray

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 Turbine Heat Rate Calculation Basic Formula:

Heat Supplied = Mass Flow * Enthalpy Difference = M * (H2 – H1)

(kcal/hr) (kg/hr) (kcal/kg)

Turbine HR = [Mfw * (Hms - Hfw)+ Mshsp * (Hms - Hshsp) +

(kcal/kWh) Mcrh * (Hhrh - Hcrh)+ Mrhsp * (Hhrh - Hrhsp) ] kcal
Gross Generation kWh

 FW, MS, CRH, HRH, Heater Extraction flow rate is calculated by condensate
flow measurement and establishing heat & mass balance across each heaters

Test Codes:
 ASME PTC - 6 For Steam Turbines
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Turbine Cylinder Efficiency (HP/IP/LP):

Heat Distribution through turbines

Steam Inlet
Output
Turbine
(MW)
HP 228
Turbine Mechanical
IP 153
Energy
(HP/IP/LP) Output
LP 279

Steam
Exhaust

 Typical turbine cylinder efficiency for 660 MW super-critical

units are:
HPT-85% IPT-90% LPT-88%

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 Turbine Cylinder Efficiency by Isentropic Enthalpy Drop
Method:
= Actual enthalpy drop * 100
Isentropic enthalpy drop

= HA – HC * 100
Turbine
H A – HB PA, TA Pc, TC
HA @ (P ,A HB @ (S HC @ (P ,
A, C
TA) TC )
PC)
SA @ (PA, TA) SC @ (Pc,
Tc )
 Pressure survey can be carried out to identify reasons for
lower cylinder efficiencies

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Effect of Operating Parameters :

 Variation of Steam paraters:

 Maintaining steam parameters (MS Pr., MS Temp. & HRH Temp.) close to
design/optimum value reduce heat rate
 Optimization of SH & RH Spray:
 Optimizing RH/SH bypass flue gas damper position
 Attending passing SH & RH spray water valves during shutdown
Plant Aging:
– Uncontrollable. After every major overhauling, loss due to aging reduces
Partial Loading:
– Uncontrollable if due to grid problems
Cycle DM Make-up Water: (Typical Values 0.5%-3.0%)
– Required due to boiler blow down, soot blowing and valve leakages (0.5-3%)
– % Make up = (Hot well Make-up flow/BMCR Steam Flow)*100

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Effect of Major Operating Parameters on Heat Rate in 660
Unit:

Money Loss
Change from Increase in Heat
Sl. No Parameters affecting Heat Rate
optimum value Rate (kcal/kWh) (Lacs Rs./day)

1 Partial Loading (MW) -1 0.21 792

2 MS pressure (MPA) -1 7.2 27154
3 MS Temperature (°C) -1 0.62 2338
4 HRH Temperature (°C) -1 0.55 2074
SH spray (TPH)
5 1 0 0

6 RH spray (TPH) 1 0.15 566

7 Condenser exhaust pressure (KPA) 1 18.2 68640
8 FW Temp. at Economizer Inlet (°C) 1 0.5 1886
9 APH Exit FG Temp (°C) 1 1.2 4526
10 Oxygen at APH I/L(%) 1 6 22629
11 DM Make-up (%) 1 8-10 33943
12 Aging (Months) 1 0.6 2263

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Common Energy Saving Opportunities in Turbine Cycle
Systems:

 Attending high energy drains passing to condenser & stopping of leakages

 Plugging air in-leak to condenser /Operating more effective vacuum
pump/operating extra vacuum pump for condenser vacuum improvement
 Cooling tower performance improvement by cleaning spray nozzles,
replacement of broken fills, installation of energy efficient CT Fans
 Attending FW bypass line passing and FW heater level setting
 Attending SH & RH spray valves
 Maintaining optimum parameters i.e. MS & RH temp. & MS pressure
 Condenser tubes cleaning during opportunity shutdown
 Periodic performance monitoring of major systems

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 Air Pre Heaters

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Air-Preheater:

Performance Indicators:
 Air-in-Leakage
 Air Side Efficiency
 Gas Side Efficiency
 X - ratio
 Flue gas temperature drop
 Air side temperature rise
 Gas & Air side pressure drops

(The indices are affected by changes in entering air or gas temperatures, their
flow quantities and coal moisture)

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Air-Preheater:

Parameters for Performance Monitoring of APH:

 O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Inlet

 O2 & CO2 in FG at AH Outlet
 Temperature of gas entering / leaving air heater
 Temperature of air entering / leaving air heater
 Diff. Pressure across AH on air & gas side

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Air-Pre heater (APH):

Air Heater Air-in-leakage (APH Leakage):

All units that operate with a rotary type regenerative air heater experience some degree of air
leakage across the air heater seals.
Typically air heater starts with a baseline leakage of 6% to 8%.

The leakage of the high pressure air to the low pressure flue gas is due to the Differential
Pressure between fluids, increased seal clearances in hot condition, seal erosion / improper
Primary
seal settings. Air-10
Increased APH
KPA
leakage leads to:
FLUE GAS Seco.
oReduced APH effectiveness -1.0 KPA Air-2
KPA
oIncreased ID fan power consumption

oHigher gas velocities that affect ESP performance

oLoss of fan margins leading to inefficient operation/restricting unit loading

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Air-Pre heater (APH):

Leakage Assessment:
 Leakage assessment must be done by a grid survey using a
portable Flue Gas Analyzer

 Calculation of leakage using CO2 values is preferred because of

higher absolute values and lower errors.

 Leakage assessment is impacted by air ingress from expansion

joints upstream of measurement sections.

 Weight of air passing from air side to gas side

 This leakage is assumed to occur entirely between air inlet and gas
outlet

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Air-Pre heater (APH):

Air Heater Leakage - Calculation

% APH Leakage = CO2in - CO2out * 100
CO2out

= O2out - O2in * 100

(21- O2out)

(For Example) = 5.7 – 3.8 * 100 = 12.4

21-5.7

CO2 measurement is preferred due to high absolute values; In case of any

measurement errors, the resultant influence on leakage calculation is small.

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Air-Pre heater (APH):

Gas Side Efficiency:

= Tgas in – Tgas out * 100
Tgas in – Tair in
(For Example) = 373 – 130 * 100 = 71.9%
336 – 35
Air Side Efficiency:
= Tair out – Tair in * 100
Tgas in – Tair in
(For Example) = 336 – 35 * 100 = 89.1%
373 – 35
X-Ratio:
= Tgas in – Tgas out * 100
Tair out – Tair in
(For Example) = 337 – 130 * 100 = 68.8%
336 – 35

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Air-Pre heater (APH):

Pressure drops across air heater:

 Air & gas side pressure drops change approximately in proportion to the square of
the gas & air weights through the air heaters.
 If excess air is greater than expected, the pressure drops will be greater than
expected.
 Deposits / choking of the basket elements would lead to an increase in pressure
drops
 Pressure drops also vary directly with the mean absolute temperatures of the fluids
passing through the air heaters due to changes in density.

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 Condenser & Heaters

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Condenser :
 Very important as 45%-50% turbine cycle loss occurs in condenser

Steam from
LPT Exhaust

Cooling
Cooling CONDENSER Water Outlet
Water Inlet

Condensate
to Hot well

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Condenser :

1. CW Temp. Rise (Th – Tc) Steam

CW CW

(Pc- Ph) Condenser

IN OUT
2. CW Pressure Drop
3. Back Pressure/Vacuum Tsat
4. Saturation Temp. @ Cond. (Tsat) Condensate

5. TTD ( Tsat- Th)

6. ITD (Tsat- Tc)

7. LMTD (TTD-ITD)/ln(TTD/ITD)

8. Effectiveness ( Th – Tc)/(Tsat-Tc)
9. Heat Load Mcw * CPcw * (Th – Tc)

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 Factors affecting Condenser Performance

(A) Removal of gases and air ingress into the condenser system:
• Condenser is at vacuum (below atmospheric pressure) hence there is
changes of air ingress in to the condenser from leaks (like LP Turbine
Glands, CEP Glands of Standby Pump, Hot well & TDBFP , Joints etc.)
• Gases not removed from condenser act as insulator & reduce heat transfer
• Condenser vacuum can be improved by:
 Plugging air ingress points to the condenser
 Monitoring of vacuum pump performance/PHE cleaning
 By operating more effective vacuum pump
 If air ingress is high, operating standby vacuum pump (if vacuum
improves by more than 0.5 KPA)

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Factors affecting Condenser Performance

(B) Condenser Tubes Chocking:

• Chocking of condenser water boxes and tubes due external material
carry to condenser
• Scale formation inside tube due to poor CW water quality/improper
anti-scaler dosing in CW
• CW DP/DT across condenser increase
• CW Flow reduces/heat transfer reduces/vacuum deteriorate
 Condenser cleaning required during opportunity
• Sponge Rubber Balls (On Line)
• High Pressure Water Jet / High Pressure Bullet Cleaning (OFF Line)
• Chemical Cleaning (OFF Line-in Worst Case)

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 Factors affecting Condenser Performance

(C) Higher Heat Load to condenser:

• Increase steam flow to condenser (Poor turbine & FW heater performance)
• Passing of high energy drains to condenser
 Identification of passing valves by Installation of thermocouples on down
stream/manifold & drain passing survey by temp. gun
 Progressive replacement of passing high energy drain valves
(D) Higher CW Inlet Temp. to Condenser:
• Due to poor cooling tower performance/Worst ambient condition
 Monitoring CT performance and corrective actions
(E) Lower CW Flow to Condenser:
• Poor CW pump performance/Low CW intake sump level
• Condenser tube chocking
• Valves not fully open at pump house or condenser end

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HP/LP Feed Water Heater Performance:

 Increase feed water temperature before entering to boiler, thereby

increasing cycle efficiency

Ext. Steam

Feed Feed Water

Water
HP/LP Heater Outlet
Inlet

Drain

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Schematics of A Heater

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HP/LP Feed Water Heater Performance :

 FW Temperature Rise –TR (Tfwo-Tfwi)


Terminal Temperature Difference – TTD (Tsat-Tfwo)


Drain Cooler Approach-DCA (Tdrain-Tfwi)

Tfwi Tfwo
FW HEATER Tsat

Tdrain
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HP/LP Feed Water Heater Performance :

Common causes for poor performance of HP heaters

are:
 Excessive venting (worn vents, altered set point, vent malfunctioning)
 Partition plates passing
 Heater bypass valve passing/leaking
 Improper level setting
 High water level (FW tubes leakage)
 Non condensable gases on shell side
 Excessive tube bundle pressure drop (excessive number of tubes
plugged, tubes chocking)

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Thank You