BASAL GANGLIA
INTRODUCTION
• Large masses of grey matter situated in the basal part of white core of
each cerebral hemisphere lateral to thalamus(fig.6.4).
• They form essential constituents of the extrapyramidal system.
• Now recognized as basal nuclei.
ANATOMICAL CONSTITUENTS
• Anatomically, the term basal ganglia include:
• Corpus striatum(caudate nucleus+lentiform nucleus)
• Claustrum
• Amygdaloid body
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSTITUENTS
• Functionally, the term basal ganglia also include:
• Substantia nigra
• Subthalamus
• Red nucleus
Function of Basal ganglia
• Important in organizing and coordinating somatic motor activities esp.
willed movements.
• Involved in automatic stereotyped postural and reflex motor activities
such as normal individuals swing their arms when they walk.
CORPUS STRIATUM
• situated lateral to the thalamus and is almost completely divided by a
band of nerve fibers, the internal capsule, into the caudate nucleus and
the lentiform nucleus.
• The term striatum is used here because of the striated appearance
produced by the strands of gray matter passing through the internal
capsule and connecting the caudate nucleus to the putamen of the
lentiform nucleus.
CAUDATE NUCLEUS
• Large C-shaped mass of gray matter that is closely related to the
lateral ventricle and lies lateral to the thalamus.
• The lateral surface of the nucleus is related to the internal capsule,
which separates it from the lentiform nucleus (Fig. 10-2).
Head
• The head of the caudate nucleus is large and rounded
• forms the lateral wall of the anterior horn of the lateral ventricle (see
also Atlas Plate 5).
• The head is continuous inferiorly with the putamen of the lentiform
nucleus (the caudate nucleus and the putamen are sometimes
referred to as the neostriatum or striatum).
• Just superior to this point of union, strands of gray matter pass
through the internal capsule, giving the region a striated appearance,
hence the term corpus striatum.
Body
• long and narrow
• continuous with the head in the region of the interventricular
foramen.
• The body of the caudate nucleus forms part of the floor of the body
of the lateral ventricle.
• tail of the caudate nucleus is long and slender and is continuous with
the body in the region of the posterior end of the thalamus.
• It follows the contour of the lateral ventricle and continues forward in
the roof of the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle.
• It terminates anteriorly in the amygdaloid nucleus (see Fig. 10-1).
Lentiform Nucleus
• Wedge-shaped mass of gray matter whose broad convex base is
directed laterally
• Blade is directed medially (see Fig. 10-2; see also Atlas Plate 5).
• Buried deep in the white matter of the cerebral hemisphere
• Related medially to the internal capsule, which separates it from the
caudate nucleus and the thalamus.
• vertical plate of white matter divides the nucleus into a larger, darker
lateral portion, the putamen, and an inner lighter portion, the globus
pallidus.
• Paleness of the globus pallidus is due to the presence of a
high concentration of myelinated nerve fibers.
• Inferiorly at its anterior end, the putamen is continuous with
the head of the caudate nucleus (see Fig. 10-1).
CLAUSTRUM
• Thin saucer-shaped mass of grey matter situated between
the putamen and insula.
• Considered as detached part of the insula.(fig.13.6)
• Connnections and functions-not known.
CONNECTIONS OF CORPUS
STRIATUM
• The striatum(caudate+putamen) is the receptive part
• Globus pallidus is the efferent part(outflow centre)
Afferent connections
• The striatum receives afferents chiefly from cerebral cortex, thalamus
and substantia nigra.
1. Corticostriate fibres
2. Thalamostriate fibres
3. Nigrostriate fibres
• Arise from substantia nigra and ascend to terminate in the corpus
striatum, mainly in putamen and caudate nucleus.
• Nigrostriate fibres carry dopamine synthesized by nerve cells of
substantia nigra to striatum.
• Have inhibitory effect on corpus striatum.
Efferent connections
• Most of the output of striatum goes to the globus pallidus, however,
some efferents also go to substantia nigra.
• The outflow from globus pallidus goes mainly to the
thalamus(ventrolateral and ventroanterior nuclei)(fig.13.5,13.6)
• This occurs by way of two fasciculi:
a) Ansa lenticularis
b) Fasciculus lenticularis
Functions of Corpus striatum
• Controls the automatic associated movements like, swinging of arms
during walking.
• Helps in smoothening the voluntary motor activity of the body.
• activity of the basal nuclei is initiated by information received from
the premotor and supplemental areas of the motor cortex, the
primary sensory cortex, the thalamus, and the brainstem.
• The outflow from the basal nuclei is channeled through the globus
pallidus, which then influences the activities of the motor areas of the
cerebral cortex or other motor centers in the brainstem.
• Thus, the basal nuclei control muscular movements by influencing the
cerebral cortex and have no direct control through descending
pathways to the brainstem and spinal cord.
• In this way, the basal nuclei assist in the regulation of voluntary
movement and the learning of motor skills.
• Writing the letters of the alphabet, drawing a diagram, passing a
football, using the vocal cords in talking, and singing, and using the eye
muscles when looking at an object are a few examples where the basal
nuclei influence the skilled cortical motor activities.
SUBSTANTIA NIGRA
• The midbrain comprises two lateral halves, called the cerebral
peduncles;
• each of these is divided into an anterior part, the crus cerebri, and a
posterior part, the tegmentum,
• by a pigmented band of gray matter, the substantia nigra (see Figs. 5-
24 and 5-25).
• substantia nigra is a large motor nucleus situated between the
tegmentum, and the crus cerebri and is found throughout the
midbrain.
• The nucleus is composed of medium-size multipolar neurons that
possess inclusion granules of melanin pigment within their cytoplasm.
• concerned with muscle tone and is connected to the cerebral cortex,
spinal cord, hypothalamus, and basal nuclei.
• The neurons of the substantia nigra are dopaminergic and inhibitory
and have many connections to the corpus striatum.
CLINICAL NOTES
• Disorders of the basal nuclei are of two general types.
1. Hyperkinetic disorders
• involve excessive and abnormal movements
• such as seen with chorea, athetosis, and ballism.
2. Hypokinetic disorders
• involve a lack or slowness of movement.
Parkinson disease includes both types of motor disturbances.
Chorea
• patient exhibits involuntary, quick, jerky, irregular
movements that are nonrepetitive.
• Swift grimaces and sudden movements of the head or limbs
are good examples.
Hemiballismus
• Hemiballismus is a form of involuntary movement confined to one
side of the body.
• It usually involves the proximal extremity musculature, and the limb
suddenly flies about out of control in all directions.
• The lesion, which is usually a small stroke, occurs in the opposite
subthalamic nucleus or its connections; smooth movements of
different parts of the body are integrated in the subthalamic nucleus.
Parkinson
Disease
• Parkinson disease is a progressive disease of unknown cause that
commences between the ages of 45 and 55 years.
• It is associated with neuronal degeneration in the substantia nigra
and, to a lesser extent, in the globus pallidus, putamen, and caudate
nucleus.
• The disease affects about 1 million people in the United States.
• The degeneration of the neurons of the substantia nigra that send
their axons to the corpus striatum results in a reduction in the release
of the neurotransmitter dopamine within the corpus striatum (Figs.
10-7 and 10-8).
• This leads to hypersensitivity of the dopamine receptors in the
postsynaptic neurons in the striatum.
• Parkinsonism is a classical triad of tremor, rigidity and
hypokinesia/bradykinesia
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