chapter
3
Motivation
Session Outline (continued)
• What Is Motivation?
• Views of Motivation
• Five Guidelines for Building Motivation
• Developing a Realistic View of Motivation
• Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness
(continued)
Session Outline (continued)
• Why Are Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness Important?
• Theories of Achievement Motivation
• Developing Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness
• Implications for Professional Practice
What Is Motivation?
Motivation is the direction and intensity of
effort.
• Direction of effort refers to whether an
individual seeks out, approaches, or is
attracted to situations.
• Intensity of effort refers to how much effort an
individual puts forth in a situation.
• Direction and intensity of effort are closely
related.
Views of Motivation
Participant- or trait-centered view
Situation-centered view
Interactional view
Views of Motivation
Participant- or trait-centered view
Motivated behavior is primarily a function of
individual characteristics (e.g., needs, goals,
personality).
Views of Motivation
Situation-centered view
Motivated behavior is primarily determined by
the situation.
Views of Motivation
Interactional-centered view
Motivated behavior results from the
interaction of participant factors and
situational factors.
Interactional View of Motivation
Five Guidelines
for Building Motivation
Guideline 1
Both situations and traits motivate people.
Five Guidelines
for Building Motivation
Guideline 2
People have multiple motives for involvement.
Understand why people participate in physical
activity.
• People participate for more than one reason.
• People may have competing motives for
involvement.
• People have both shared and unique motives.
• Motives change over time.
• Motives differ across cultures.
How to Identify Participant Motives
Observe participants.
Talk informally to others.
Ask participants directly.
Major Motives for Sport Participants
• Improving skills
• Having fun
• Being with friends
• Experiencing thrills and excitement
• Achieving success
• Developing fitness
Major Motives
for Exercise Participants
Joining Continuing
Health factors Enjoyment
Weight loss Liking instructor
Fitness Liking type of activity
Self-challenge Social factors
Feeling better
Five Guidelines for Building
Motivation
Guideline 3
Change the environment to enhance
motivation.
• Provide both competitive and recreational
opportunities.
• Provide for multiple motives and opportunities.
• Adjust to individuals within groups.
Five Guidelines for Building
Motivation
Guideline 4
Leaders influence motivation directly and
indirectly.
Five Guidelines for Building
Motivation
Guideline 5
Use behavior modification to change
undesirable participant motives.
Developing a Realistic View
of Motivation
• Motivation is a key variable in both learning
and performance contexts.
• Physical and psychological factors beyond
motivation influence behavior and must be
considered.
• Some motivational factors are more easily
influenced than others.
Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness
What Are Achievement Motivation
and Competitiveness?
Achievement motivation
A person’s orientation to strive for task success,
persist in the face of failure, and experience pride in
accomplishments (Gill, 2000)
What Are Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness?
Competitiveness
“A disposition to strive for satisfaction when making
comparisons with some standard of excellence in the
presence of evaluative others” (Martens, 1986)
What Are Achievement Motivation
and Competitiveness?
Keys
• Achievement motivation = self-comparison
of achievement.
• Competitiveness = social evaluation or
comparison.
Why Achievement Motivation
Is Important
Influences on achievement motivation
Choice of activities
Effort to pursue goals
Intensity of effort
Persistence in the face of failure
Theories of Achievement Motivation
Need achievement theory
Attribution theory
Achievement goal theory
Competence motivation theory
Need Achievement Theory
Attribution Theory
Attributions
How people explain their successes and
failures
• Stability
• Locus of causality
• Locus of control
Attribution Theory
Weiner’s basic attribution categories
Attributions and
Achievement Motivation
Attributions Psychological result
Stable Increased expectation of
success
Internal cause Increased pride or shame
In one’s control Increased motivation
(See table 3.1 on p. 64 of text.)
Achievement Goal Theory
Achievement goals
Outcome goal orientation (or competitive goal orientation)
focuses on comparing performance with that of others
and defeating others.
Task goal orientation (or mastery goal orientation)
focuses on improving relative to one’s own past
performances.
Social goal orientation focuses on judging competence in
terms of affiliation with the group and recognition of
being liked by others.
Achievement Goal Theory
Achievement Goal Theory
Keys
• Focus extra attention on task-oriented
goals.
• Foster mastery or task motivational
climates.
Competence Motivation Theory
Keys
• People are motivated to feel worthy or
competent.
• Feelings of competence and worth, as well
as perceptions of control, determine
motives.
Competence Motivation Theory
Adapted, by permission, from M. Weiss and N. Chaumeton, 1992, Motivational orientations in
sport. In Advances in sport psychology, edited by T.S. Horn (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics),
90.
What Theories
of Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About High Achievers
Motivational orientation
• High motivation to achieve success
• Low motivation to avoid failure
• Focus on the pride of success
What Theories of
Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About High Achievers
Attributions
• Ascribe success to stable and internal
factors within their control
• Ascribe failure to unstable and external
factors outside their control
• Usually adopt task goals
What Theories of
Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About High Achievers
Perceived competence and control: Have high perceived competence
and feel that achievement is within their control
Task choice: Seek out challenges, able competitors, and demanding tasks
Performance: Perform well in evaluative conditions
What Theories of
Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About Low Achievers
Motivational orientation
• Low motivation to achieve success
• High motivation to avoid failure
• Focus on shame and worry that may result
from failure
What Theories of
Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About Low Achievers
Attributions
• Ascribe success to unstable and external factors outside their control
• Ascribe failure to stable and internal factors within their control
Goals adopted: Usually adopt outcome goals
What Theories of
Achievement Motivation
Tell Us About Low Achievers
Perceived competence and control: Have low perceived competence
and feel that achievement is outside their control
Task choice: Avoid challenges, seek out very difficult or very easy tasks or
competitors
Performance: Perform poorly in evaluative conditions
Developing Achievement Motivation
and Competitiveness
Stages
• Autonomous competence stage
• Social comparison stage
• Integrated (self- and social comparison) stage
Developing Achievement Motivation and
Competitiveness
Developing Achievement Motivation
and Competitiveness
Keys
• Recognize stage of achievement motivation.
• Ultimate goal is the integrated stage.
• Motivational climate influences achievement
motivation.
Implications for Professional Practice
(continued)
1. Recognize the interaction of personal and
situational factors influencing achievement
behavior.
• Stage of achievement behavior
• Goal orientation
• Attributions
• Situations approached or avoided
(continued)
Implications for Professional Practice
(continued)
2. Emphasize mastery (task) goals and downplay outcome goals. Create a mastery
motivational climate.
3. Monitor and alter attributional feedback.
4. Monitor and correct inappropriate attributions.
5. Determine when competitive goals are appropriate.
6. Enhance feelings of competence and control.
