Language &

Variation
Two kinds

1. Variation within language

2. Variation of Languages
Factors responsible for variation
Regional –geographical location

Economic/ Social- class status, gender,

age, occupation, education

Individual- roles, personality, style,

register
Speech Community

A community sharing a knowledge of the

rules for the conduct and interpretation of
speech

There is no limit to the number & variety

of speech communities that are to be
found in a society
What is a dialect?
A form of language spoken by a
group of people from the same
regional or cultural background.

Everyone speaks a dialect, even

though some dialects are more
noticeable than others.
Dialect & Language
 No universally accepted criteria for
distinguishing languages from dialects.

Language is generic that includes single

linguistic norm or a group of norms whereas
dialect is a subcategory that includes only
one of the norms.

 The exact distinction is a subjective one,

dependent on the user's frame of reference
Mutual Intelligibility
One criterion for distinguishing languages
from dialects, though sociolinguistic
factors are also important.
Dialect
Dialect is also sometimes used to refer to
a lesser-known language especially one
that is unwritten or not standardized

Identifying a particular dialect as the

"standard" or "proper" version of a
language are in fact using these terms to
express a social distinction
Language & Attitude
No dialect is better than another

Concepts of power and solidarity linked

to dialects

Irrational prejudice associated with

certain dialects
Dialect
A sub-division of a language, used by a group of
speakers who have some non-linguistic
characteristics in common or the specific form of
a language used by a speech community

Most common characteristic:

◦ the regional one
◦ Link can also be occupational and social
◦ Sometime variety depends upon the occasion to use as
well
Standard and non-standard dialects

 A standard dialect: a dialect that is supported by

institutions

◦ government recognition or designation;

◦ presentation as being the "correct" form of a
language in schools;
◦ published grammars, dictionaries, and
textbooks that set forth a "correct" spoken and
written form;
◦ an extensive formal literature that employs
that dialect in prose, poetry, non-fiction, etc.
Regional dialect
 not a distinct language
 a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a
country
 Some regional dialects have been given traditional
names which mark them out as being significantly
different from standard varieties spoken in the same
place
Regional Language Variation

ACCENT
&
DIALECT
Accent variation
Example:
◦ But– bet( North Americans)
◦ Ten—tin( Southern Americans)
◦ House—hoose (scottish)
◦ Ball—baw (scottish)
◦ kithay—kitay ( saraiki)
◦ Route—raaoot (British-American)
Dialect variation
He’ll no can come the day (Scottish)
He won’t be able to come today
(English)
We don’t want no more construction
(African American dialect)
We don’t want anymore construction
(standard American)
Dialect variation
Tussi kairey passey jaana ae?
Tussi kaire passey waina ae?

Mera kum khatam hon wala ae.

Mainda kum khatam hon ala ae.

Mereywaaste sirf ik ee chees ae?

Mainde aaste sirf hik ee chees ae?
Dialect variation
Vocabulary
◦ Chhali/ sita– bhutta (Lahore/Karachi)
◦ Sarhana– Takia (Lahore/Karachi)
◦ Bazun– Aasteen (Lahore/Karachi)
◦ Lift—elevator (British/American)
◦ Sweet– Candy (British/American)
◦ Garbage– rubbish
( British/American)
Dialect variation
Grammar
I have got—I have gotten ( British-
American)
It needs washing—it needs washed.
(English-Scott)
You need your hair cutting—You need
your hair cut (North-South England)
 Verbal Repertoire ( Complete language
varieties used by a particular community of
speakers)

Registers (linguistic Styles ( Linguistic varieties

varieties linked to
linked to the formality of
occupations, professions or
the situation)
topics)
Language & Gender
Sex and gender
Sex is a biological categorization based primarily on
reproductive potential, whereas gender is the social
elaboration of biological sex. Gender builds on
biological sex, it exaggerates biological difference
and, indeed, it carries biological difference into
domains in which it is completely irrelevant.

Gender is not something we are born with, and not

something we have, but something we do (West and
Zimmerman 1987) – something we perform (Butler
1990).
1. Language used by each gender

2. Language used to describe each gender

Gender Theories
The biological theory: gender roles
are static & contextually
independent

The social constructionist theory:

gendered identities are voluntary,
and that males and females choose
their gendered identities
Their distinct linguistic varieties are
closely related to the social attitudes.
◦ Men use language to be ‘competitive’
◦ Women use language to be
‘cooperative’
 Difference in Style
Females Males
Casual in speaking
 Careful in speaking Speak roughly
Usually polite
Less standard varieties
Stick to prestige or
used
standard forms Don’t talk at higher
Talk at a higher pitch pitch
Listen more Talk more and are less

Can talk for hours on attentive

Don’t talk much on the
same topic
Interrupt less
same topic for long
Interrupt more
 Difference in Language
Females Males
 Talk of topics about their  Talk on general and
interest varied topics
 Share feelings and disclose  Rarely talk about
personal information themselves or their
 Tag insertion personal matters
 Talk in italics  Sure of what they say
 Use weak expletives (swear  Quite direct
words)  Strong expletives
 Use ‘Women’s’ adjectives
 Use neutral adjectives
 Statements in question form
 Less polite directive
 More polite directive speech
speech acts
acts
Language, Gender & power
Three main models:

◦ Deficit model
◦ Dominance model
◦ Difference or cultural model
Language, Gender & power
What are the two main questions that
Language and Gender looks at?

- Do Men and Women use language in the

same of different ways?
- Is language inherently sexist?
Language, gender & power
Deficit approach:
Women’s speech is generally inferior to men’s and
reflect their sense of personal and social inferiority.
Lakoff describes the way women’s speech style
includes features which are expressive of
uncertainty, lack of confidence and excessive
deference or politeness‟ (Lakoff in Finch: 2003, p.
137).
These features include tag questions, rising
intonation and hedges
Language, gender & power
Dominance approach:
Dominance approach assigns language
variances between men and women to the
dominance of men within society.
Men have deliberately exerted control
over language ( spender)
Men dominate mixed sex conversations.
"They violate turn-taking rules“
(Zimmerman and West)
Language, gender & power
Difference or cultural approach:
Tanen develops the two-culture model of men and
women, where children are socialized within two
separate groups.
Men don't dominate but just speak differently to
women.
Men and women use different areas of the brain
Women = problem sharers
they keep social bonds
Men = problem solvers
they use it to get stuff done
Some more differences
Males generally have more jokes in
their speech as compared to females.
Females tend to phrase their arguments
in terms of group needs rather than
personal terms as contrary to males
Males issue commands to other boys
rather than suggest what should be
done.
Stereotypes against women’s speech

A women’s tongue wags like a lamb’s tail.

Foxes are all tail and women are all tongue.

Where woman is, silence is not.

Allthe Daddies on the bus go read,
read…..All the mummies on the bus go
chatter, chatter.
What gender comes to your mind?

Nurse
Doctor
Police
officer
Teacher
Professor
Sometimes a word explicitly marking
the referent as male or female is added.

Male nurse
Lady doctor
Family man
Career woman
Naming convention
Address for men, Mr., regardless of marital
status.
Address for women, Miss and Mrs. Based on
marital status.
Feminists coined address form Ms.
Ms. Form misinterpreted, for e.g. Canada,
Pennsylvania, Wimbledon tennis matches
 Specific to cultures
Mostly believed that only men have right to
the permanency of their names.

◦ In Greece, married women take possessive form

of husband’s name.
◦ In Arabia, women are referred to as ‘ wife of……’
◦ In China, no names for women, referred to as ‘
third daughter’ ‘little sister’
◦ In Iceland, Children carry names as ‘ John’s son’
‘John’s daughter’
◦ In Pakistan????
Martyna’s (1993) he/man approach
The use of male terms to refer to both
males in particular and human beings in
general. E.g. man, man-to-man,
brotherhood, chairman…..
◦ Man has learned to control his
environment.
◦ This discovery will benefit all mankind.
◦ Jamila and her brother Jamshed will
serve as chairmen of major committees.
Using Non-sexist language
Example Alternative

Mankind Humanity, people, human beings

Man-made Synthetic, manufactured, machine-

made
The common man The average person, ordinary people

Chairman Chairperson, presiding officer

Businessman Business executive

Fireman Firefighter

Mailman Mail Carrier

Policeman & Policewomen Police officer

Steward & Stewardess Flight attendant

Congressman Congressional representative

Avoid using masculine pronouns
The average student is worried about his grade.
The average student is worried about grades.
Everyone should do his best.
Everyone should do one’s best.
Each student will do better if he has a voice in the
decision.
Each student will do better if he or she has a voice
in the decision.
When everyone contributes his ideas the decision
will be a success.
When everyone contributes their own ideas, the
discussion will be a success.
Language Variation
according to use

Register and Style

I speak Spanish to God, Italian to women, French to

men, and German to my horse.
(Charles V)