Internal Combustion Engines

Chapter 1
 internal combustion engine
The internal combustion engine (IC) is a heat engine that converts chemical
energy in a fuel into mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating
output shaft. Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy
by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal
energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine,
and the high-pressure gas then expands against the mechanical mechanisms
of the engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the
engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.

• The first fairly practical engine was invented by J.J.E. Lenoir (1822-1900) and
appeared on the scene about 1860. (efficiency up to 5%)
• In 1867 the Otto-Langen engine, with efficiency improved to about 11%, was
first introduced.
• By 1892, Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913) had perfected his compression ignition
engine into basically the same diesel engine known today.
ENGINE CLASSIFICATIONS

Internal combustion engines can be classified in a number of different ways:

1. Types of Ignition
(a) Spark Ignition (SI). An SI engine starts the combustion process in each
cycle by use of a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge
between two electrodes which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
chamber surrounding the plug.

(b) Compression Ignition (CI). The combustion process in a CI engine starts

when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion
chamber caused by high compression.
2. Engine Cycle
(a) Four-Stroke Cycle. A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two
engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle. A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one
revolution for each cycle.

3. Valve Location
(a) Valves in head (overhead valve), also called I Head engine.
 Valve Location(continued)

(b) Valves in block (flat head), also called L Head engine. Some historic engines with
valves in block had the intake valve on one side of the cylinder and the exhaust
valve on the other side. These were called T Head engines.
 Valve Location(continued)

(c) One valve in head (usually intake) and one in block, also called F Head engine;
this is much less common.
4. Basic Design

(a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder.
Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the
pistons.

(b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor
and crankshaft.
5. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines

(a) Single Cylinder. Engine has one cylinder and piston

connected to the crankshaft.

(b) In-Line. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one

behind the other along the length of the crankshaft. They
can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-line
four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and
other applications. In-line six and eight cylinders are
historically common automobile engines. In-line engines
are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight
eight).

(c) V Engine. Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each

other along a single crankshaft. The angle between the
banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120°, with
60°-90° being common. V engines have even numbers of
cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common
automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in
some luxury and high-performance vehicles.
(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. Two banks of cylinders opposite
each other on a single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V).
These are common on small aircraft and some automobiles
with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more.
These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four).

(e) W Engine. Same as a V engine except with three banks of

cylinders on the same crankshaft. Not common, but some
have been developed for racing automobiles, both modern
and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about a 60° angle
between each bank
(l) Opposed Piston Engine. Two pistons in each cylinder with the
combustion chamber in the center between the pistons. A
single-combustion process causes two power strokes at the
same time, with each piston being pushed away from the
center and delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each
end of the cylinder. Engine output is either on two rotating
crankshafts or on one crankshaft incorporating complex
mechanical linkage.

(g) Radial Engine. Engine with pistons positioned in a circular

plane around the central crankshaft.
6. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure

boost system.

(b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased

with the compressor driven off the engine
crankshaft.

(c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased

with the turbine-compressor driven by the
engine exhaust gases .

(d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle

engine which uses the crankcase as the intake
air compressor. Limited development work has
also been done on design and construction of
four-stroke cycle engines with crankcase
compression.
7. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
(a) Carbureted.
(b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each cylinder intake.
(c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake manifold.

8. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline.
(b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil.
(c) Gas, Natural Gas, Methane.
(d) LPG.
(e) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl.
(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or
more fuels. Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane
and diesel fuel.
(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.
9. Application
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus.
(b) Locomotive.
(c) Stationary.
(d) Marine.
(e) Aircraft.
(f) Small Portable, Model Airplane.

1O. Type of Cooling

(a) Air Cooled.
(b) Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled.
 TERMINOLOGY AND ABBREVIATIONS

Internal Combustion (IC)

Spark Ignition (SI) An engine in which the combustion process in each cycle is
started by use of a spark plug.

Compression Ignition (CI) An engine in which the combustion process starts

when the air-fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the
combustion chamber caused by high compression. CI engines are often
called Diesel engines, especially in the non-technical community.

• Top-Dead-Center (TDC) Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest

point away from the crankshaft. Top because this position is at the top of
most engines (not always), and dead because the piston stops at this point.
• Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC) Position of the piston when it stops at the
point closest to the crankshaft.

• Direct Injection (DI) Fuel injection into the main combustion chamber of
an engine

• Indirect Injection (IDI) Fuel injection into the secondary chamber of an

engine with a divided combustion chamber.
The main difference between Direct and Indirect Injection is the layout of the injection
system, the Indirect Injection System actually has a small swirl chamber above the
cylinder, where the fuel is injected, the Direct Injection system has the injection nozzle
actually fixed to the top of the combustion chamber.
• Bore
Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the same
minus a very small clearance.

• Stroke
Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other:
TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.

• Clearance Volume
Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at TDC.

• Displacement or Displacement Volume

Volume displaced by the piston as it travels through one stroke.
Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine (one
cylinder times number of cylinders). Some literature calls this swept
volume.
• Smart Engine

Engine with computer controls that regulate operating characteristics

such as air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, valve timing, exhaust control, intake
tuning, etc.

• Engine Management System (EMS)

Computer and electronics used to control smart engines.

• Wide-Open Throttle (WOT)

Engine operated with throttle valve fully open when maximum power
and/or speed is desired.

• Ignition Delay (ID)

Time interval between ignition initiation and the actual start of
combustion
• Air-Fuel Ratio (AF)
Ratio of mass of air to mass of fuel input into engine.

• Fuel-Air Ratio (FA)

Ratio of mass of fuel to mass of air input into engine.

• Brake Maximum Torque (BMT)

Speed at which maximum torque occurs.

• Overhead Valve (ORV)

Valves mounted in engine head.

• Overhead Cam (ORC)

Camshaft mounted in engine head, giving more direct control of valves
which are also mounted in engine head.

• Fuel Injected (FI)

Engine Components
The following is a list of some major components
• Block: Body of engine containing the
cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminum.

• Head : The piece which closes the end of the

cylinders, usually containing part of the
clearance volume of the combustion
chamber. The head contains the spark plugs
in SI engines and the fuel injectors in CI
engines and some SI engines. Most modern
engines have the valves in the head, and
many have the camshaft(s) positioned there
also (overhead valves and overhead cam).

• Head gasket: Gasket which serves as a

sealant between the engine block and head
where they bolt (screw, be locked ) together
Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the
piston face where combustion occurs. The size of the combustion chamber
continuously changes from a minimum volume when the piston is at TDC
to a maximum when the piston is at BDC.

Camshaft : Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the
engine cycle

Connecting rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft.

Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft.

Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to

external systems.

Wrist pin: Pin fastening the connecting rod to the piston (also called the
piston pin).
Crankshaft

Connecting rod

Wrist pin Piston

Camshaft
• Cylinders: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons
reciprocate back and forth.

• Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on
SI engines or into the cylinder on CI engines.

• Fuel pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from

the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.

• Glow plug: Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the

combustion chamber of many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber
enough so that combustion will occur when first starting a cold engine.
The glow plug is turned off after the engine is started.
• Intake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders.

• Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders

• Piston: The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the cylinder,
transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the rotating
crankshaft.

• Piston rings : Metal rings that fit into grooves (long narrow channel) around the
piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
Near the top of the piston are usually two or more compression rings made of
highly polished hard chrome steel. The purpose of these is to form a seal between
the piston and cylinder walls and to restrict the high-pressure gases in the
combustion chamber from leaking past the piston into the crankcase (blowby).
Below the compression rings on the piston is at least one oil ring, which assists in
lubricating the cylinder walls and scrapes away excess oil to reduce oil
consumption.
1st  compression  ring

2nd  compression  ring

Oil ring
• Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by
creating a high-voltage discharge across an electrode gap.

• Supercharger :Mechanical compressor powered off of the crankshaft, used to

compress incoming air of the engine.

• Throttle: Butterfly valve mounted at the upstream end of the intake system,
used to control the amount of air flow into an SI engine.

• Turbocharger: Turbine-compressor used to compress incoming air into the

engine. The turbine is powered by the exhaust flow of the engine and thus
takes very little useful work from the engine.

• Valves: Used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in
the cycle.

• Water jacket: System of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders,

usually constructed as part of the engine block and head. Engine coolant
flows through the water jacket and keeps the cylinder walls from overheating.
• Fuel pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the
fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.

• Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air on SI
engines or into the cylinder on CI engines.

• Catalytic converter: Chamber mounted in exhaust flow containing catalytic

material that promotes (helps) reduction of emissions by chemical reaction.

• Starter : used to start IC engines. Most are started by use of an electric motor
(starter) geared to the engine flywheel. Energy is supplied from an electric
battery.

• Flywheel: Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the

crankshaft of the engine.

• …
• Oil pan: Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block,
making up part of the crankcase. Acts as the oil sump for most engines.

• Oil pump: Pump used to distribute oil from the oil sump to required
lubrication points.

• Push rods: Mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on

overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the crankcase.

• Radiator: Liquid-to-air heat exchanger used to remove heat from the

engine coolant after the engine has been cooled.

• Water pump: Pump used to circulate engine coolant through the engine
and radiator. It is usually mechanically run off of the engine.
Cross-section of four-stroke cycle S1 engine showing engine components;
(A) block, (B) camshaft, (C) combustion chamber, (D) connecting rod, (E)
crankcase, (F) crankshaft, (G) cylinder, (H) exhaust manifold, (I) head, (J) intake
manifold, (K) oil pan, (L) piston, (M) piston rings, (N) push rod, (0) spark plug,
(P)valve, (Q) water jacket.
 BASIC ENGINE CYCLES

1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction

The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust
valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the combustion chamber,
which in turn creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential through
the intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum
on the inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder. As the air passes
through the intake system, fuel is added to it in the desired amount by means
of fuel injectors or a carburetor.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke
When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston travels
back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-fuel mixture,
raising both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The finite time
required to close the intake valve means that actual compression doesn't
start until sometime aBDC. Near the end of the compression stroke, the
spark plug is fired and combustion is initiated.
• 3. Combustion
Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite length
of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume
combustion). It starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly
bTDC and lasts (continues) into the power stroke slightly aTDC.
Combustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of exhaust
products and increases the temperature in the cylinder to a very high peak
value. This, in turn, raises the pressure in the cylinder to a very high peak
value.

4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke

With all valves closed, the high pressure created by the combustion
process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke which
produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from
TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and
temperature to drop.
5. Exhaust Blowdown
Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened and exhaust blow down occurs.
Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the surroundings at
this point, and a pressure differential is created through the exhaust system which is
open to atmospheric pressure. This pressure differential causes much of the hot
exhaust gas to be pushed out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when
the piston is near BDC. This exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which
lowers the cycle thermal efficiency. Opening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the
work obtained during the power stroke but is required because of the finite (having
limitations) time needed for exhaust blowdown.

6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke

By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust blowdown is complete, but the cylinder is
still full of exhaust gases at approximately atmospheric pressure. With the exhaust
valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in the exhaust stroke.
This pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the exhaust
system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the clearance
volume when the piston reaches TDC. Near the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the
intake valve starts to open, so that it is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke
starts the next cycle. Near TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully
closed sometime aTDC. This period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are
open is called valve overlap.
Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
1.First Stroke: Intake Stroke: The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one
major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.

2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that only
air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in
the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber,
where it mixes with the very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-
ignite, causing combustion to start.

3. Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant

pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.

4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke The power stroke continues as combustion ends and
the piston travels towards BDC.

5. Exhaust Blowdown Same as with an SI engine.

6. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke Same as with an SI engine.

 Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
1. Combustion: With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly,
raising the temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant
volume.

2. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke Very high pressure created
by the combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke.
The expanding volume of the combustion chamber causes pressure and
temperature to decrease as the piston travels towards BDC.

3. Exhaust Blowdown At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and
blowdown occurs. The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve (mushroom-
shaped valve ) in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot (narrow opening )
in the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches
BDC. After blowdown the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at
lower pressure.
4. Intake and Scavenging : When blowdown is nearly complete, at
about 50° bBDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is
uncovered and intake air-fuel enters under pressure. Fuel is added
to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection. This incoming
mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases out the open
exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible air-fuel
mixture, a process called scavenging. The piston passes BDC and
very quickly covers the intake port and then the exhaust port (or
the exhaust valve closes).

5. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: With all valves (or ports)

closed, the piston travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel
mixture to a higher pressure and temperature. Near the end of the
compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the time the piston
gets to TDC, combustion occurs and the next engine cycle begins.
 ENGINE EMISSIONS AND AIR POLLUTION

• The exhaust of automobiles is one of the major contributors to the world's

air pollution problem. Recent research and development has made major
reductions in engine emissions, but a growing population and a greater
number of automobiles means that the problem will exist for many years
to come.
• Laws were passed in the United States and in other industrialized
countries which limit the amount of various exhaust emissions that are
allowed.
• Four major emissions produced by internal combustion engines:
• Hydrocarbons (HC)
Hydrocarbons are fuels which did not get burned and partially burned
fuel.
• Carbon monoxide (CO)
Carbon monoxide occurs when not enough oxygen is present to
fully react all carbon to CO2 or when incomplete air-fuel mixing
occurs due to the very short engine cycle time.

• Oxides of nitrogen (NOx)

Oxides of nitrogen are created in an engine when high combustion
temperatures cause some normally stable N2 to dissociate
(separate ) into N, which then combine with reacting oxygen.

• Solid particulates (PM)

Solid particulates are formed in compression ignition engines and
are seen as black smoke in the exhaust of these engines.
• Two methods are being used to reduce harmful engine
emissions.

1. One is to improve the technology of engines and fuels so that

better combustion occurs and fewer emissions are generated.

2. The second method is aftertreatment of the exhaust gases.

This is done by using thermal converters or catalytic
converters that promote chemical reactions in the exhaust
flow. These chemical reactions convert the harmful emissions
to acceptable CO2, H20, and N2