PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY

TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.1
Introduction to Oil and Gas Industry
 Oil and Gas Industry

Upstream has many

phases beginning with the
Exploration and exploration process.
Production of Oil and Geologists search on dry
Gas from underground land or in ocean for signs
of hydrocarbon

When a well is producing,

hydrocarbon enters the
OIL AND UPSTRE
OWNSTREAM
DSTREAM
midstream juncture. The
Transportation
middle part of the process
GAS Pipelines requires multiple
INDUSTRY AM Storage cooperation.

The downstream stage

handles processing, selling,
Refining
marketing and distributing
Processing gas or oil. Final products
Marketing depend upon the initial
resource.
 WHAT IS PETROLEUM ENGINEERING?

Production Engineer

Petroleum
Subsea
Increasing the

Earth Science
amount of Drilling engineer

hydrocarbons
Offshore
produced from engineering

engineering
Engineer
Reservoir Engineer
underground

Petrophysicist

Geophysicst

Geologist
 FİELD LİFE CYCLE

Production
facilities design
Production Site
Where is the and

Deve Aba
Amount of of restitution

Dis Eval Pro

field? hydrocarbon implentation hydrocarbon
s

lop ndo
cov uati men duc nme
EXPLORATİON (5-10 YEARS) PRODUCTİON (15-30 YEARS)

ery on t tion nt
 FİELD LİFE CYCLE

Production
Maintenance
Drilling Reservoir Engineer
Engineer Petroleum Engineer

Geologist

Exp Ap
Geophysicst
Deve Pro Aba Engineering

lop ndo
lora prai men duc nme
tion sal t Support:
IT, Finance, HR, Safety,
Logistics, Government
tion nt
Relations
Production Profile Phases
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.2
OIL AND GAS FIELDS’ LIFE PHASES
 Exploration stage

Analy
Drawi sis of
Defini
ng the core
Analy ng the
maps sampl
sis locati
of Analy es
Seismi and ons of
poten sis of (poros Well Well Well Static
c interp explor
tial core ity loggin testin testin model
proce retati ation
hydro sampl and g g g ling
sses on of wells
carbo es perme
seismi and
n ability
c data drillin
reserv calcul
g
oirs ations
)
 Appraisal stage

Using Conduct
Evaluati
Defining the initial
Reproce on of
Define the newly concept Assessm
Planning ssing results
the location obtaine ual field ent
and existing from
location s of d develop study of
executio seismic seismic
s and explora outputs ment these
n of data to and
drill tion to planning concept
seismic enhance appraisa
appraisa wells update and ual
data the l drilling
l wells and the Environ plans
results activitie
drilling static mental
s
model İmpact
 Development stage

Reservoir: Operating and

number, location, Maintenance
type of wells; Facilities: strategies:
Wells: the
assessment of oil process manning level,
design of wells Be ready to
recovery facilities, daily production
mechanism;
to meet production
infrastructure, level, support
assessment of production requirements
stage
terminal/expor
production over requirements (for example is
t facilities
the development helicopter),
stage supply vessels
 Production stage

Plan and schedule Carry out

Regulate Monitor and all production and maintenance to
production and record all maintenance safeguards the
technical integrity
injection to meet information to activities to
of all wells and
approved plans for manage the minimize facilities and ensure
the quantity and reservoir, wells production their availability
quality of product and facilities deferment and over the life of the
operating costs field
 Abandonment stage

Plug and abandon dismantle and remove

well by putting the jacket and all
cement plugs into the facilities from the site,
wells at various ensuring that there is Conduct a final Restore the site to
depths and remove no contamination of environmental its original
the well-head and the environment from impact study condition 
casing to a depth of any oil or waste
about 2 meters below material remaining in
the surface or seabed the process facilities
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.3
Some Details in Exploration Stage
 Hydrocarbon exploration

• The role of exploration is to provide the information required to exploit the best opportunities presented
in the choice of areas, and to manage research operations on the acquired blocks.
• Goal of exploration is to identify and locate a prospect, to quantify the volume of hydrocarbon which
might be contained in the potential reservoirs and to evaluate the risk inherent the project itself.

●
Study of surface geology
●
Formation outcrops
●
Surface rock samples
Surface Geological Survey
(Geological)

●
Gravity survey
●
Magnit survey
●
Seismic survey
 Geophysical methods

Gravimetric Prospecting Magnetometric

Seismic Prospecting
Prospecting

 Seismic prospecting has become the most valuable

 Gravimetric prospecting is a  This method involves measuring technique to reduce exploration risk of being
geophysical technique which is able local anomalies in the Earth’s unsuccessful in locating a prospect.
to identify anomalies in the gravity magnetic fields.  The technique is based on determinations of the
acceleration generated by contrasts  The method enable acquisition of time interval that elapses between the initiation of a
in density among bodies in the data on structural characteristics and seismic wave at a selected shop point and the arrival
subsurface depth of the susceptive basement of reflected or refracted impulses at one or more
 Gravimetric prospecting is used to and therefore, indirectly, on the seismic detectors.
reconstruct of the main structural thickness of sedimentary  The phase of seismic data acquisition is followed by
elements of sedimentary basins such overburden and identifies the the seismic data processing phase (aimed to the
as: extension, thickness, salt domes, presence, depth and extension of alteration of seismic data to suppress noise, enhance
intrusive plutons and dislocations or volcanic or plutonic masses within signal and migrate seismic events to the appropriate
fault lines. the sedimentary sequences. location in space) than by the interpretation of the
generated subsurface image.
 Seismic data interpretation

- Geophysicists interpret the processed seismic data and integrate other geoscientific information to
make assessments of where oil and gas reservoirs may be accumulated.
- Powered by advanced supercomputer power, rapid data loading, high-speed networking and high-
resolution graphics, visualization centers provide the ability to display and manipulate complex
volumes of 3D data resulting in better interpretation of more data in less time.
 Exploratory Drilling activities

• Once geological and geophysical information have defined and evaluated (technically
and economically) the drillable prospect, it is possible to move to a fundamental phase
of the exploration project – the drilling of the first exploratory well.
• The drilling of the exploration well is aimed to confirm the presence of the petroleum
accumulation.

Well logging Coring Well testing

 A well test is the measurement under
 The well logging technique controlled conditions of all factors relating
 Coring provides the only
consists of lowering a ‘logging to the production of oil, gas, and water from
means of obtaining high
tool’ into the well to acquire a well.
quality samples for the direct
geological data and to reveal
measurement of rock and  Well tests are conducted to acquire dynamic
reservoir fluids characteristics. rate, pressure, temperature, and fluid
reservoir properties.
 Well logging help geoscientists property data.
 Core samples are then used to
and engineers to understand:  The acquired information is used to
perform Routine Core Analysis
Presence of reservoir Presence determine reservoir capabilities and
and/or Special Core Analysis to
of hydrocarbons and important decisions such as production
obtain detailed petrophysical
characteristics Reservoir methods, well production equipment, and
data.
properties, etc.. field development drilling are made from
the interpretation of well test results.
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.4
Introduction to Drilling Engineering
 Drilling Proposal and Drilling Program

THE DRILLING PROPOSAL AND DRILLING PROGRAM

The proposal for drilling the well is prepared by the geologists and reservoir
engineers in the operating company and provides the information upon which the
well will be designed and the drilling program will be prepared. The proposal
contains the following information:

Depth (m/ft Subsea), Geological Cross

and Location section and Pore
Objective of the Well
(Longitude and Pressure Profile
Latitude) of Target Prediction
 Drilling Program

The drilling program is

prepared by the
Drilling Engineer and
contains the following:
Proposed
Casing Sizes
Location for
and Depths the Drilling Rig

• Drilling Drilling Rig to

Fluid be used for
Specification the well

• Directional
Hole Sizes
Drilling
Information
and Depths

Bits and Well Control

Hydraulics Equipment and
Program Procedures
Drilling a Well
Casing Types
 Casing Types

Drilling and Casing the 17 1/2” Hole:

Once the cement has set hard, a large spool called a wellhead
housing is attached to the top of the 20” casing. This wellhead
housing is used to support the weight of subsequent casing
strings and the annular valves known as the Blowout prevention
(BOP) stack which must be placed on top of the casing before the
next hole section is drilled.

Since it is possible that formations containing fluids under high

pressure will be encountered whilst drilling the next (17 1/2”)
hole section a set of valves, known as a Blowout prevention (BOP)
stack, is generally fitted to the wellhead before the 17 1/2” hole
section is started. If high pressure fluids are encountered they will
displace the drilling mud and, if the BOP stack were not in place,
would flow in an uncontrolled manner to surface. This
uncontrolled flow of hydrocarbons is termed a Blowout and
hence the title Blowout Preventers (BOP’s). The BOP valves are
designed to close around the drillpipe, sealing off the annular
space between the drillpipe and the casing. These BOPS have a
large I.D. so that all of the necessary drilling tools can be run in
hole.
Christmas Tree and Well Head
 Completing the Well

If the well is to be used for long term production, equipment which will allow the controlled
flow of the hydrocarbons must be installed in the well. In most cases the first step in this
operation is to run and cement production casing (9 5/8" O.D.) across the oil producing zone. A
string of pipe, known as tubing (4 1/2" O.D.), through which the hydrocarbons will flow is then
run inside this casing string. The production tubing, unlike the production casing, can be pulled
from the well if it develops a leak or corrodes. The annulus between the production casing and
the production tubing is sealed off by a device known as a packer. This device is run on the
bottom of the tubing and is set in place by hydraulic pressure or mechanical manipulation of the
tubing string.

When the packer is positioned just above the pay zone its rubber seals are expanded to seal off
the annulus between the tubing and the 9 5/8" casing (Figure 3). The BOP’s are then removed
and a set of valves (Christmas Tree) is installed on the top of the wellhead. The Xmas tress is
used to control the flow of oil once it reaches the surface. To initiate production, the production
casing is “perforated” by explosive charges run down the tubing on wireline and positioned
adjacent to the pay zone. Holes are then shot through the casing and cement into the
formation. The hydrocarbons flow into the wellbore and up the tubing to the surface.
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.5
Drill Rig Components
 Drilling rigs

• Drilling rigs are large and noisy. They operate numerous pieces of enormous equipment.
Drillship The purpose of a drilling rig is only to drill a hole in the ground. Although the rig is big, the
hole it drills is relatively small. The purpose of the drill hole is to tap an oil or gas reservoir
often thousands of feet or hundreds of meters below the surface of the earth. The drill
●
Drill ships are exactly as they sound: ships designed to carry out drilling operations. These boats are specially designed to carry drilling platforms out to deep-sea locations. A
hole is usually less than one foot (30 centimeters) in diameter at final depth.
typical drillship will have, in addition to all of the equipment normally found on a large ocean ship, a drilling platform and derrick located on the middle of its deck. In addition,
drill ships contain a hole (or ‘moonpool’), extending right through the ship down through the hull, which allows for the drill string to extend through the boat down into the
• A variety rotary drilling rigs might be used depending on the location and geography of
water. Drill ships are often used to drill in very deep water, which can often be turbulent. Drill ships use what is known as ‘dynamic positioning’ systems. Drill ships are equipped
with electric motors on the underside of the ship’s hull, capable of propelling the ship in any direction. These motors are integrated into the ship’s computer system, which uses
the reservoir. Offshore, the ocean environment plays an important role in rig design. Rigs
satellite positioning technology, in conjunction with sensors located on the drilling template, to ensure that the ship is directly above the drill site at all times.
may be broadly divided into two categories: rigs that work on land and rigs that work
offshore. One type of offshore drilling facility is a platform. Offshore exploration and
development wells are often drilled from mobile offshore drilling units. Depending on the
water depth and remoteness of the location, these "rigs" may be jackups (up to 400 feet of
Semi Submersible water), or semisubmersibles, or drill ships (up to 12,000 feet of water). Jackups are
bottom-supported units; semisubmersibles and drill ships are floating units ("floaters").

●
Semisubmersible rigs are the most common type of offshore drilling rigs, combining the advantages of submersible rigs with the ability to drill in deep water. A
semisubmersible rig works on the same principle as a submersible rig: through the ‘inflating’ and ‘deflating’ of its lower hull. The main difference with a
semisubmersible rig, however, is that when the air is let out of the lower hull, the rig does not submerge to the sea floor. Instead, the rig is partially submerged, but
still floats above the drill site. When drilling, the lower hull, filled with water, provides stability to the rig. Semisubmersible rigs are held in place by huge anchors,
each weighing upwards of 10 tons. These anchors, combined with the submerged portion of the rig, ensure that the platform is stable and safe enough to be used in
turbulent offshore waters. Semisubmersible rigs can be used to drill in much deeper water than the rigs mentioned above.

Jackup
●
Jack-ups do not float. Once a jack up rig is towed to the drilling site, three or four ‘legs’ are lowered until
they rest on the sea bottom. Hence it provides a stable platform from which to drill. This allows the
working platform to rest above the surface of the water. However, jack-up rigs are suitable for shallower
Submersible
waters, as extending these legs down too deeply would be impractical. 
• Submersible rigs, also suitable for shallow water, are like jackup rigs in that they come in contact
with the ocean or lake floor. These rigs consist of platforms with two hulls positioned on top of one
another. The upper hull contains the living quarters for the crew, as well as the actual drilling
platform. The lower hull works much like the outer hull in a submarine – when the platform is
being moved from one place to another, the lower hull is filled with air – making the entire rig
buoyant. When the rig is positioned over the drill site, the air is let out of the lower hull, and the rig
submerses to the sea or lake floor. This type of rig has the advantage of mobility in the water,
however once again its use is limited to shallow water areas.
 Drilling rigs classification

Ultra-heavy rigs
Light rigs Medium rigs Heavy rigs Down to > 6000
Down to 2000 m Down to 4000 m Down to 6000 m m
Up to 650 HP Up to 1300 HP Up to 2000 HP 3000 HP and
more
Drilling rigs components
 Drilling rigs components

1. Crown block 21. Pipe rack

2. Mast 22. Substructur
3. Monkey board 23. Mud return line
4. Travelling block 24. Shale shaker
5. Hook 25. Choke manifold
6. Swivel 26. Mud gas separator
7. Elevator 27. Degasser
8. Kelly 28. Reserve pit
9. Kelly bushing 29. Mud pits
10. Master bushing 30. Desander
11. Mousehole 31. Desalter
12. Rathole 32. Mud pumps
13. Drawworks 33. Mud discharge lines
14. Weight indicator 34. Bulk mud components
15. Driller’s console storage
16. Doghouse 35. Mud house
17. Rotary hose 36. Water tank
18. Accumulator unit 37. Fuel storage
19. Catwalk 38. Engines and generators
20. Pipe ramp 39. Drilling line
 Hoisting system

Function:
• The hoisting system is the set of equipment necessary to
lower or raise drill strings, casing string and other
subsurface equipment into or out of hole

Components:
• Derrick and substructure
• Crown block
• Travelling block
• Draw works
• Drilling line
• Hook
 Hoisting system

Derrick:
• is an open-framework structure of steel beams, whose function is to hold the ensemble of of sheaves at its top,
known as the crown block, on which all of the items of equipment operated in the well or on the drilling floor are
suspended.
• The height of the derrick must be such as to permit the vertical movement of the travelling block for a distance
greater than the equipment of one stand. For example, to handle a stand of 3 drill pipes (about 27 m long) the
derrick has to be about 40 m high. The derrick is designed to resist the loads tripped in and out of the well in the
operating phases, which include both static and dynamic stresses.
• Every derrick has a rated load capacity defined by API standards

Crown block:
• An assembly of sheaves mounted on beams at the top of the derrick and over which the drilling line is reeved
• The crown block bears the load applied at the hook and its function is to reduce the wire rope tension required to
pull the tubular material used to drill the well. At the top of the rig. It consists of a set of sheaves (usually from 3 to
7) supported by a framework of steel beams.

Travelling block:
• Consisting of another set of sheaves (one fewer than for the crown block), mounted on an axis connected to the
hook.
• The number of sheaves in the crown and travelling block is chosen on the basis of the rated capacity of the tower
and the rate of pulling, which is inversely proportional to the number of lines of wire rope connecting the
travelling block and the crown block.
 Hoisting system

Hook:
• The high capacity J-shape equipment used to hand various equipment, particularly the swivel and Kelly, the elevator
bails or top drive units. The hook is attached to the bottom of the travelling block and provides a way to pick up
heavy loads with the travelling block. The hook is either locked (the normal condition) or free to rotate, so that it
may be mated or decoupled with items positioned around the rig floor, not limited to a single direction.
Drawwork:
is to provide the condition for lowering and raising the travelling block. The principal function is to convert the power
source into a hoisting operation and provide braking capacity to stop and sustain the weights imposed when lowering
or raising the drill string.

The principal parts of the drawworks are drum and cathead.

Drum: The drum is housed in the drawworks and transmits the torque required for hoisting and braking. It also stores
the drilling line required to move the traveling block the length of the derrick.

Cathead: The cathead is a shaft with a lifting head that extends on either side of the drawworks and has two major
functions. It is used in making up and breaking out tool joints in the drill string. It is also used as a hoisting device for
heavy equipment on the drill floor.
 Rotary system

Rotary system is used to rotate the drill string, and therefore the drill bit, on the bottom
of the borehole. The rotary system includes rotary table, swivel, kelly, kelly bushing and
master bushing.
• Supports the weigh of the drill string
• Permits the string to rotate
• Allows mud to be pumped while the string is
rotating

• The kelly is a three-, four-, or six-sided length of pipe, about 12,19 m(40
feet) long, that is the upper part of the drill stem.
• It serves as a passageway for the drilling fluid on its way into the hole and
transmits the rotary movement to the drill pipe and bit.
• The kelly fits into a corresponding square or hexagonal opening in a device
called a kelly, or drive, bushing.
• The kelly bushing fits into a part of the rotary table called the master, or
rotary, bushing.
• As the master bushing rotates, the kelly rotates; and as the kelly rotates,
the drill string and bit rotate

• Protect the rotary table

• The revolving or spinning section of the drill floor that provides

power to turn the drill string. The rotary motion and power are
transmitted through the kelly bushing and the kelly to the drill
string. When the drill string is rotating, the drilling crew
commonly describes the operation as simply, “rotating to the
right” or “turning to the right.”
 Drill string handling equipment

Drill String is the column, or string, of drill pipe with attached tool joints that transmits
fluid and rotational power from the kelly to the drill collars and the bit. Often, the term is
loosely applied to include both drill pipe and drill collars.

– Drill collars, like drill pipe, are steel tubes through which mud can be pumped.
 Drill collars are heavier than drill pipe and are used on the bottom part of the string to
put weight on the bit.
 This weight presses down on the bit to get it to drill.
 Drill collars are about 9,14 m (30 feet) long and, unlike the drill pipe that has tool joints
welded on, they have the boxes and pins cut into them.
 Mud Circulation system

A vertical pipe rising along the side

Mud pumps are used for circulating the drilling fluid down the drill pipe and of the derrick. It joins the discharge
out of the annulus. These are high-pressure and high-volume pumps. They line leading from the mud pump to
Drilling fluid, commonly referred to as “mud”, is the rotary hose and through which
stored in a series of tanks that are of rectangular can be double-acting duplex pumps or single-acting triplex pumps.
mud is pumped going into the hole.
steel construction, with partitions that hold about
200 barrels each. These tanks, located at both
onshore and offshore rigs, are set in series for the
mud circulation system. This system pumps the
mud down through the drilling pipe where it cools
and lubricates the drill bit. It then flows back to
the surface and carries away the formation
cuttings.
Vibrating hose is a flexible, high
A centrifugal device for removing sand from pressure hose that connects the
drilling fluid to prevent abrasion of the pumps. mud pump to the stand pipe. It is
It may be operated mechanically or by a fast called the vibrating hose because
-moving stream of fluid inside a special cone- it tends to vibrate and shake
shaped vessel, in which case it is sometimes (sometimes violently) due to its
called a hydrocyclone. close proximity to the mud
pumps.
A centrifugal device, similar to a
desander, used to remove very fine
particles, or silt, from drilling fluid.
This keeps the amount of solids in
the fluid to the lowest possible
level.

The shale shaker is a contaminant removing device. It is used to remove the coarser drill
cuttings from the mud. This device is located at the end of the flow line. The shale shaker is
composed of series of trays with sieves or screens that vibrate to
remove cuttings from circulating fluid in rotary drilling operations. The size of the openings in
the sieve is selected to match the size of the solids in the drilling fluid
and the anticipated size of cuttings.
 Power system

• In a drilling site, power is needed to run the machines driving the main
components of the rig, such as the drawworks, the pumps, the rotary table and
the engines of the various auxiliary facilities (compressed air, safety systems,
centrifugal pumps, lightings, services, etc.)
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.6
Drilling Fluids and Drill Bits
 Drilling Fluids

Drilling fluid or drilling mud is a critical component in the rotary drilling process. Its primary
functions are to remove the drilled cuttings from the borehole whilst drilling and to prevent fluids
from flowing from the formations being drilled, into the borehole. It has however many other
functions and these will be discussed below. Since it is such an integral part of the drilling process,
many of the problems encountered during the drilling of a well can be directly, or indirectly,
attributed to the drilling fluids and therefore these fluids must be carefully selected and/or
designed to fulfil their role in the drilling process.
The cost of the mud can be as high as 10-15% of the total cost of the well. Although this may
seem expensive, the consequences of not maintaining good mud properties may result in drilling
problems which will take a great deal of time and therefore cost to resolve. In view of the high
cost of not maintaining good mud properties an operating company will usually hire a service
company to provide a drilling fluid specialist (mud engineer) on the rig to formulate, continuously
monitor and, if necessary, treat the mud.
 Functions of Drilling Fluids

Remove
Transmit
Hydraulic cuttings
Horsepower from the
to Bit Wellbore
The drilling fluid must be selected and or
designed so that the physical and chemical
properties of the fluid allow these functions to
Prevent be fulfilled. However, when selecting the fluid,
Formation
Fluids Cool and
The primary functions
consideration mustofalso
a be given to:
Flowing into Lubricate the Bitdrilling fluid
• The environmental impact of using the fluid
the Wellbore
• The cost of the fluid
• The impact of the fluid on production from the
pay zone
Maintain
Wellbore
Stability
 Drilling Fluid Types

The two most common types of drilling fluid used are water based mud and oil based mud.
These muds will be discussed in detail in Section 3 and 4 below but as a general statement,
Water-based muds (WBM) are those drilling fluids in which the continuous phase of the
system is water (salt water or fresh water) and Oil-based muds (OBM) are those in which the
continuous phase is oil. WBM’s are the most commonly used muds world-wide. However,
drilling fluids may be broadly classified as liquids or gases (Figure 1). Although pure gas or
gas-liquid mixtures are used they are not as common as the liquid based systems. The use of
air as a drilling fluid is limited to areas where formations are competent and impermeable
(e.g. West Virginia). The advantages of drilling with air in the circulating system are: higher
penetration rates; better hole cleaning; and less formation damage. However, there are also
two important disadvantages: air cannot support the sides of the borehole and air cannot
exert enough pressure to prevent formation fluids entering the borehole. Gas-liquid mixtures
(foam) are most often used where the formation pressures are so low that massive losses
occur when even water is used as the drilling fluid. This can occur in mature fields where
depletion of reservoir fluids has resulted in low pore pressure.
Drilling Fluid Types
Mud Compositions
 Drill Bits

A drilling bit is the cutting or boring tool which is

made up on the end of the drillstring. The bit drills
through the rock by scraping, chipping, gouging or
grinding the rock at the bottom of the hole. Drilling
fluid is circulated through passageways in the bit to
remove the drilled cuttings. There are however
many variations in the design of drillbits and the
bit selected for a particular application will depend
on the type of formation to be drilled.
PETROLEUM AND PETROLEUM-CHEMISTRY
TECHNOLOGIES

TOPIC 2.7
Cementing and Perforation
 Cementing

Cement is used primarily as an impermeable seal material in oil and gas well
drilling. It is most widely used as a seal between casing and the borehole,
bonding the casing to the formation and providing a barrier to the flow of
fluids from, or into, the formations behind the casing and from, and into, the
subsequent hole section. Cement is also used for remedial or repair work on
producing wells. It is used for instance to seal off perforated casing when a
producing zone starts to produce large amounts of water and/or to repair
casing leaks.

To prevent the movement of fluids from

one formation to another; or from the
formations to surface through the
To support the casing string (specifically To protect the casing from corrosive
annulus; or from the cemented hole
surface casing) fluids in the formations.
section into the next hole section being
drilled, between the casing and
borehole.
Cementing
Perforation