Fire and Explosion Hazards
Lower flammable limit (LFL):
The minimum concentration of fuel in air required for ignition at ambient
temperature is known as the lower flammable limit (LFL). Any mixture of fuel
and air below the LFL is too lean to burn. Usually expressed in volume per cent.
Upper flammable limit (UFL):
The concentration above which ignition will not occur is labeled as the upper
flammable limit (UFL).
The flammability range is delineated by the upper and lower flammability limit.
Outside this range of air/vapor mixtures, the mixture will not ignite (unless heated).
The LFL decreases with increasing temperature; thus, a mixture that is below its LFL at
a given temperature may ignite if heated sufficiently. The LFL is typically close to the
saturated vapor concentration at the flash point, however, due to differences in
technique between measuring LFL and the various flash points (open/closed cup as
well as different apparatus) some spread in the data usually exists.
limiting oxygen index (LOI):
Concentration of oxidizer that must be present for ignition.
The limiting oxygen index (LOI) is the minimum concentration of oxygen,
expressed as a percentage, that will support combustion.
The flammability limits of mixtures can be estimated from the data for
individual fuels by using le Chatelier’s principle’s mixing rule for combustible volume
fractions
∑ (y i /LFL i) = 1.0
where y i is the mole fraction of each component of the fuel in the air and the
LFL, is the corresponding LFL value for each component. A similar relationship
can be used to estimate the UFL for a gas mixture. If the concentration of
a mixture of fuel gases is known, the LFL for the mixture can be approximated
from
(LFL)mix = 100/∑(pi /LFL i)
where pi is the percentage of fuel in the original mixture, free from air and
inert gases. The two preceding relationships provide reasonably good LFL and
UFL values for mixtures of hydrocarbon gases and mixtures of hydrogen, carbon
monoxide, and methane. The relationships provide poorer results for other gas
Mixtures.
Auto ignition temperature (AIT):
If the concentration of fuel is within the flammability limits and the temperature of the
mixture is high enough, the mixture will ignite. The temperature at which ignition will
occur without the presence of a spark or flame is designated as the auto ignition
temperature (AIT). If the temperature is less than the AIT, a minimum amount of
energy (as low as a few milli-joules for hydrocarbons) is required for ignition of
flammable mixtures.
Explosion
An explosion is a sudden and generally catastrophic release of energy, causing a
pressure wave. An explosion can occur without a fire, such as the failure through
overpressure of a steam boiler. It is necessary to distinguish between detonation and
deflagration when describing the explosion of a flammable mixture. In a detonation,
the chemical reaction propagates at supersonic velocity and the principal heating
mechanism is shock compression. In a deflagration, the combustion process is the
same as in the normal burning of a flammable mixture with the reaction propagating
at subsonic velocity and experiencing a slow pressure buildup. Whether detonation or
deflagration occurs in a flammable mixture depends on such factors as the
concentration of the mixture and the source of ignition. Unless confined or ignited by
a high intensity source, most materials will not detonate. However, the pressure wave
caused by a deflagration can still cause considerable damage
In engineering applications, deflagrations are easier to control than detonations. Consequently,
they are better suited when the goal is to move an object (a bullet in a gun, or a piston in
an internal combustion engine) with the force of the expanding gas. Typical examples of
deflagrations are the combustion of a gas-air mixture in a gas stove or a fuel-air mixture in an
internal combustion engine, and the rapid burning of gunpowder in a firearm or of pyrotechnic
mixtures in fireworks.
It becomes clear that the chances a single fire or explosion will spread to adjoining
units can be reduced by careful plant layout and judicious choice of construction
materials. Hazardous operations should be isolated by location in separate buildings or
by the use of brick fire walls. Brick or reinforced concrete walls can serve to limit the
effects of an explosion, particularly if the roof is designed to lift easily under an
explosive force. Equipment should be designed to meet the specifications and codes of
recognized authorities, such as the American Standards Association, American
Petroleum Institute, American Society for Testing Materials, Factory Mutual
Laboratories, National Fire Protection Association, and Underwriters’ Laboratories.
The design and construction of pressure vessels and storage tanks should follow API
and ASME codes, and the vessel should be tested at 1.5 to 2 or more times the design
pressure. Adequate venting is necessary, and it is advisable to provide protection by
using both spring-loaded valves and rupture disks.
Possible sources of fire are reduced by eliminating all unnecessary ignition sources,
such as flames, sparks, or heated materials. Matches, smoking, welding and cutting,
static electricity, spontaneous combustion, and non-explosion-proof electrical
equipment are all potential ignition sources. The installation of sufficient fire alarms,
temperature alarms, fire-fighting equipment, and sprinkler systems must be specified
in the design.
HAZOPS Study
The hazard and operability study, commonly referred to as. the HAZOP study,
is a systematic technique for identifying all plant or equipment hazards and
operability problems. In this technique, each segment (pipeline, piece of equipment,
instrument, etc.) is carefully examined and all possible deviations from
normal operating conditions are identified. This is accomplished by fully defining
the intent of each segment and then applying guide words to each segment
as follows:
No or not-no part of the intent is achieved and nothing else occurs (e.g.,
no flow)
More------quantitative increase (e.g., higher temperature)
Less--------quantitative decrease (e.g., lower pressure)
As well as------qualitative increase (e.g., an impurity)
Part of--------qualitative decrease (e.g., only one of two components in mixture)
Reverse-------opposite (e.g., backflow)
Other than----no part of the intent is achieved and something completely
different occurs (e.g., flow of wrong material)
These guide words are applied to flow, temperature, pressure, liquid level, composition,
and any other variable affecting the process. The consequences of these deviations on the
process are then assessed, and the measures needed to detect and correct the deviations
are established.
FIGURE 3-1:
Piping and instrumentation diagram used in HAZOP example
