ELECTRONS

CHAPTER 10
GOALS FOR LEARNING

• To describe the electron movement using Bohr’s atomic model

• To explain energy level and orbitals in atoms
• To understand electron configurations and the order of filling orbitals
• To write electron configurations for large atoms
• To write abbreviated election configurations based on noble gases
• To draw dot diagrams showing the valence electrons of atoms and ions
LESSON 1: ENERGY
LEVELS AND
ORBITALS
OBJECTIVES

• Describe the contributions of Planck and Einstein

• Tell what Bohr studied and how he changed the model of the atom
• Explain how electrons are able to move from one energy level to another
• List the four types of orbitals and describe some of their shapes
• Explain how orbitals are named by energy level and shape
 ELECTRONS
BOHR’S MODEL
OF THE ATOM
• Bohr’s planetary model placed
the nucleus at the center of the
atom, with electrons orbiting in
a relatively big space around it.
• But, by the 1920s, scientists
knew there was more to this
model.
• Electron movement was much
more complicated.
 BEGINNING WORK
• To
  understand the nature of electrons in the atomic model,
You need to start with energy and how it relates to matter
• 1900 Max Plank
• Studies radiation produced by a very hot piece of metal
• He found that heated metal did not radiate energy at
one continuous frequency, but over several multiple
wavelengths
• Therefore the energy of a wave is related to its frequency

E equals energy
V is frequency and h is a constant (Planck’s constant)

The higher the frequency of the radiation, the higher it's energy
THEY CONNECTED THIS TO THE
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
 1905, ALBERT EINSTEIN ADDS TO PLANCK’S
WORK
• The Photoelectric Effect
• An effect that occurs when electrons are emitted from the surface of a metal as light
strikes the metal
• He showed that while white light released electrons
• Red light did not, no matter how intense it was
• And that, even very low intensity blue light would release electrons
• He proposed that light was not a continuous form of energy, but comes in bundles or packages
• He called this bundle of energy a photon
• A bundle or package of energy
ENERGY LEVELS

• Niels Bohr – Emission Spectra

• The arrangement of separate colors in light that is emitted when the atoms of
a substance are energized and viewed through a prism; plural emission
spectra
• You take a gaseous substance, in a vacuum tube and charge it with electricity.
• When viewed through a prism, the colors in the light are separated.
• Each line corresponds to a specific frequency and a specific amount of energy.
 ENERGY LEVELS

• Each element produces a unique

spectrum
• Like a fingerprint for that
element.
• He started with hydrogen, the
simplest element.
• 1 proton
• 1 electron

• But, he get’s 5 lines of

spectra???
ENERGY LEVELS

• Bohr proposes that the electron in the hydrogen atom must be moving from one
layer in the atom to another. Each layer being a certain distance from the nucleus
and having its own wavelength
• When it gains energy (say from the electricity in the emission tube) it will go up a
level.
• But, when it looses that energy and goes down a level, that release of energy is
seen as a form of light.
• That light is representative of the energy level the electron is leaving.
• An area of space where electrons can move
 ENERGY LEVELS

• More discoveries were made by other scientists

• Electrons do not travel in circular paths
• Impossible to predict where an electron is at any given
time
• Instead, use terms like “probable” location
• Electron Cloud
• An indistinct region of space around the nucleus
that describes the probable location of electrons
 SUBLEVELS
AND ORBITALS
• Let’s take a look and compare Neon
and Iron
• Emission spectra of atoms with many
electrons are much more complex.
• Some emission lines are very close
• This shows the idea of sublevels
• A small level within an
energy level where electrons
can move
SUBLEVELS AND ORBITALS

• Energy levels have the symbol n

• Energy levels are numbered 1 – infinity, but most models only show levels
n =1 to n =7, with n =1 being closest to the nucleus.
• Each energy level has a certain number of sublevels.
• The first four have names: s, p, d, and the f.
• Each sublevel is made up of a certain number of orbitals.
• A region of space described by a shape that shows the probable location of
an electron in an atom
 ORBITALS

• s sublevel
• One orbital
• Sphere or ball shaped

• p sublevel
• Three orbitals
• px py pz
 ORBITALS

• d sublevel
• Five orbitals
• Varying shapes and
grouped together
 ORBITALS

• f sublevel
• Seven orbitals
• Complex shapes and
grouped together
PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER

• Energy level 1 is closest to the nucleus

• Energy levels with a higher n are higher in energy
• Also contain more sublevels
• Electrons in an orbital have specific energy
• That level of energy corresponds closely with the sublevel
• And in turn, the energy level itself
• Each orbital has a name that tells you it’s energy level and is sublevel
• n = 1, 2, 3 and s, p, d, f
 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
CONT.
• Energy level 1 has only one sublevel, s.
• This sublevel has only one orbital.
• This orbital has the name 1s, which tells you it is a ball shaped s orbital in energy
level one
• Energy level 2 has two sublevels, s and p.
• This has a total of four orbitals.
• One is an s orbital, named 2s
• Three are p orbitals: 2px 2py 2pz
 PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER
CONT.
• Energy level 3 has three sublevels: s, p, and d
• This has a total of nine orbitals.
• 3s
• 3px 3py 3pz
• Five are 3d orbitals
• Energy level 4 has all four sublevels: s, p, d, and f
• This has a total of 16 orbitals.
• 4s 4px 4py 4pz five 4d orbitals seven 4f orbitals
LESSON 2:
ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIONS
OBJECTIVES

• State two rules for determining an electron configuration

• Explain how an electron configuration gives the location of electrons
• Write the electron configuration of an element
• Identify the valence electrons in an electron configuration
• Tell how elements in a row are similar, and how elements in a column are similar.
HOW ELECTRONS ARE ARRANGED TELLS US
ALOT
• Some substances react violently with simple water
• Some substances do not react with anything.
• The key to this is how electrons are arranged and how they react with other atoms
• Electron Configuration
• The arrangement of electrons in an atom’s orbitals and energy levels
• Kind of like giving a specific address
RULES FOR DETERMINING ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION
• Rule #1
• Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

• Rule #2
• Aufbau principle
• A rule stating that electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy
1st
ROW 1 ELEMENTS
 ROW 1 ELEMENTS
ALSO CALLED PERIOD 1 ELEMENTS*
• Row 1 elements include:
• Hydrogen
• Helium

• Electrons are in energy level 1

• Closest to nucleus and lowest in energy
• Smallest level
• Only 1s orbital

* - learn more about that in chapter 11

 HOW DO WE SHOW ITS ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION?
• Use our rules
• Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons
• Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Hydrogen with it’s 1 p+ and 1 e- Helium with it’s 2 p+ and 2 e-

Number of electrons in Number of electrons in
1s 1 orbital = 1
1s 2 orbital = 2

Energy Energy
level Orbital = 1s level Orbital = 1s
ROW 2 ELEMENTS
 ROW 2 ELEMENTS

• Row 2 elements include: • Energy level 2 is larger than energy

Lithium Nitrogen level 1
Beryllium Oxygen • 4 orbitals
Boron Fluorine • One 2s – maximum of 2
Carbon Neon electrons
• Electrons are in energy levels 1 and 2 • Three 2p – maximum of 6
electrons (2/orbital)
 LITHIUM - Li

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Lithium with it’s 3 p+ and 3 e-

1s 2s 2 1
 BERYLLIUM - Be

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Beryllium with it’s 4 p+ and 4 e-

1s 2s 2 2
 BORON - B

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Boron with it’s 5 p+ and 5 e-

1s 2s 2p
2 2 1
 NEON - Ne

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Neon with it’s 10 p+ and 10 e-

1s 2s 2p
2 2 6
ROW 3 ELEMENTS
 ROW 2 ELEMENTS

• Row 3 elements include:

Sodium Magnesium Aluminum Silicon
Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon

• Electrons are in energy levels 1, 2, and 3

• Energy level 3 is larger than energy level 2, which is larger than energy level 1
• 9 orbitals
• One 3s – maximum of 2 electrons
• Three 3p – maximum of 6 electrons (2/orbital)
• Five 3d – maximum of 10 electrons (2/orbital)
 SODIUM - Na

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Sodium with it’s 11 p+ and 11 e-

1s 2s 2p 3s
2 2 6 1
 ARGON - Ar

Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

Argon with it’s 18 p+ and 18 e-

1s 2s 2p 3s 3p
2 2 6 2 6
PERIODIC TABLE
PATTERNS
• Rows • Column 1 – configuration ends in ns1
• Electron configuration • Column 13 – all end in ns2 np1
• New row, new energy level • Valence electrons
• Columns ???? • An electron in an s or p orbital in
• Electron configuration as well the highest energy level of an
atom
• Also react the same way
 EXAMPLE

Valence electrons
An electron in an s or p orbital in the highest energy level of an atom

• H: 1s1
Column 1 elements have 1
• Li: 1s2 2s1 valence electron
• Na: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

• B: 1s2 2s2 2p1 Column 13 elements have 3

valence electron
• Al: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
LESSON 3: ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIONS
BEYOND ROW 3
 OBJECTIVES

• Explain how overlapping energy levels affect the order of filling orbitals
• Use a diagonal chart to write an electron configuration
ORBITALS OF HIGHER ENERGY LEVELS

• Energy level 4 and above

• The hotel analogy breaks down. Rooms on the 4th floor begin to fill before all
of the 3rd floor is filled.
• The energy levels overlap
• Some orbitals are at a lower energy state than others, even though they
are on a higher level.
• Ie: the 4s orbital is lower in energy than the 3d orbital
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

• In lesson 2 you learned 2 rules about electron configuration:

• Rule #1 - Each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons

• Rule #2 - Electrons fill orbitals that have the lowest energy first.

 To write electron configurations for rows 4-7, we need a third rule:

 Rule #3 – The order in which orbitals are filled is not always based on energy
level.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

• 1s orbital energy level 1 always filled first

• 2s, 2pxyz energy level 2 filled

• HOWEVER
• Not all 9 orbitals in level 3 are filled before we start to fill some level 4 orbitals
• Not all 16 orbitals in level 4 are filled before we start to fill some level 5 orbitals

• HOW DO WE KNOW WHICH ONES TO FILL?????

EXAMPLE 1: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Cobalt.

Co

Cobalt 27 4th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d7
EXAMPLE 2: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Krypton.

Kr

Krypton 36 4th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p6
EXAMPLE 3: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Scandium.

Sc

Scandium 21 4th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1
EXAMPLE 4: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Zinc.

Zn

Zinc 30 4th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d10
EXAMPLE 5: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Technetium.

Tc

Technetium 43 5th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d5
EXAMPLE 6: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Xenon.

Xe

Xenon 54 5th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p6
EXAMPLE 7: DETERMINE THE ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Mercury.

Hg

Mercury 80 6th

1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d105p66s24f145d10
LESSON 4:
SHORTCUTS
FOR WRITING
ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIO
NS
 OBJECTIVES

• Describe a noble gas in terms of its valence electrons

• Write and abbreviated electron configuration
• Use a labeled periodic table to write and electron configuration
• Determine the electron configuration of an ion
 WHAT HAVE WE NOTICED ABOUT ELECTRON
CONFIGURATIONS???

• Co 4 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d7
• Kr 4 36 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
• Sc 4 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d1
• Zn 4 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
• Tc 5 43 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d5
• Xe 5 54 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
• Hg 6 54 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10

There should be an easy way to abbreviate these.

 NOBLE GASES
AN ELEMENT IN COLUMN 18 OF THE PERIODIC TABLE.

• He 1s2
• Ne 1s2 2s2 2p6
• Ar 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
• Kr 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
• Xe 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
• Rn 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d105p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6
• Og 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d105p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p6 7s2 5f14 6d10 7p6
With the exception of helium, the noble gasses have e- configurations that end in np6, therefore they have
8 valence electrons. This makes them extremely stable. Octet Rule* we will learn about in Chapter 12
Bonding
 ABBREVIATED ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS

• Use noble gas configurations as a base

• Argon Ar (18 electrons) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

• Calcium Ca (20 electrons) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
• Calcium Ca (20 electrons) [Ar] 4s2

The electrons after the base are the valence electrons. Valence electrons are the ones
that interact in chemical reactions. The important ones.
PROBLEMS

• The metals in columns 3-12 of the periodic table are called transition metals. Several of
these, for example, copper, chromium, and palladium, have configurations that are
different from predictions.
• Copper 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10
• Copper 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10

• However, elements in columns 1, 2 and 13-18, are called representative elements. Their
electrons have predictable configurations.
ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF IONS

• Neutral calcium ion 20 electrons (atomic number 20)

• Calcium cation, Ca2+ 18 electrons (2+ charge)
• Neutral argon atom 18 electrons

• An ion of one element will have the same number of electrons as a neutral atom of another element.
• Often that of a noble gas

• Isoelectronic
• When an ion and an atom have the same electron configuration.
 ELECTRON CONFIGURATIONS OF IONS

• Neutral calcium ion 20 electrons (atomic number 20)1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

• Neutral argon atom 18 electrons 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
• Calcium cation, Ca2+ 18 electrons (2+ charge) [Ar] 
WRITE THE ABBREVIATED ELECTRON
CONFIGURATION OF Phosphorus

Phosphorus 15 3th

[Ne] 3s23p3
FIND THE ELECTRON CONFIGURATION OF THE ION, Se2-,
THE ABBREVIATED ELECTRON CONFIGURATION, AND
WHAT ATOM IT IS ISOELECTRONIC WITH.

Selenium 34 4th 2- 36

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6

[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p6

Kr
LESSON 5: DOT
DIAGRAMS
 OBJECTIVES

• Tell why valence electrons are important

• Explain what a dot diagram shows
• Draw a dot diagram for a neutral atom
• Draw a dot diagram for an ion
VALENCE ELECTRONS

• Atoms share, gain or give away electrons in reactions

• They are come from the s and p orbitals of the highest energy level
• 4 orbitals total: 1 s and 3 p
• Total of 8 possible valence electrons
• Dot diagram
• A simple diagram that uses dots to represent the valence electrons of an atom or ion
EXAMPLE: DOT DIAGRAMS FOR THE COLUMN 1
ELEMENTS
EXAMPLE: DOT DIAGRAMS FOR THE COLUMN 1
ELEMENTS
EX 1: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR Phosphorus

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

P
EX 2: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR
MAGNESIUM

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Mg
EX 3: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR BROMINE

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p5
[Ar] 4s2 3d10 4p5

Br
EX 3: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR ARGON

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 

Ar
EX 3: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR THE ION,
O2-

1s2 2s2 2p4
1s2 2s2 2p6

[ O]
2-

Isoelectronic with Ne
EX 3: DRAW THE DOT DIAGRAM FOR THE ION,
CA2+

1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

2+

]
]
Ca
Isoelectronic with Ar