Welding Processes

Outline

 General Introduction

Joining

What is welding?

Types of Welding

Weldability of a Metal and Weldments

Types of Weld Defects and Discontinuities

Weld Symbols

Parts of welds
General Introduction

A Brief History of Welding

Late 19th Century

Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat and / or join metals (Le

Chatelier, Joule, etc.)

Early 20th Century

Prior to WWI welding was not trusted as a method to join two metals due to crack
issues

1930’s and 40’s

Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used extensively in the war effort to build
tanks, aircraft, ships, etc.

Modern Welding

The nuclear / space age helps bring welding from an art to a science
Joining

 The term joining is generally used for

 Welding

 Brazing

 Soldering

 And adhesive bonding

Which form a permanent joint between the parts a joint that cannot easily be separated.
What is welding?

 It is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and / or pressure.

 Welding involves localized coalescence or joining together of two metallic parts at

their faying surfaces.

 Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone, with no pressure applied.

 Others by a combination of heat and pressure.

 And still others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied.

Types of Welding

Fusion Welding;

•It is a joining process that uses fusion of the base metal to make the weld.

•It is a processes use heat to melt the base metals.

1) Homogeneous

Gas Welding

Electroslag

High Energy Beam

Electric Arc

2) Heterogeneous

Brazing

Soldering
Soldering and Brazing
 Soldering and brazing involve melting a filler material that will flow into a narrow gap and
solidify.
 It is distinct because the base materials should not be melted.
 Soldering is done at a lower temperature, either with a propane torch, or an electric heater.
 It is intended for bonds with less required strength, such as electrical and plumbing
applications.
 It is often an alloy combination of two of tin, lead, silver, zinc, antimony or bismuth.
 Brazing is done at higher temperatures with oxyacetylene (C2H2) or MAPP (C3H4) gas
torches.
 These bonds tend to be higher and can be used for mechanical strength.
 It is metals are typically alloys such as,
 Brazing brass (60% Cu, 40%Zn) ,Manganese bronze, Nickel silver ,Copper silicon Silver
alloys (with/without phosphorous),Copper phosphorous.
Pressure and Friction welding
Weldability of a Metal

 Metallurgical Capacity

Parent metal will join with the weld metal without formation of deleterious
constituents or alloys

 Mechanical Soundness

Joint will be free from discontinuities, gas porosity, shrinkage, slag, or cracks

 Serviceability

Weld is able to perform under varying conditions or service (e.g., extreme

temperatures, corrosive environments, fatigue, high pressures, etc.)
Fusion Welding Principles

 Base metal is melted

 Filler metal may be added

 Heat is supplied by various means

Oxyacetylene gas

Electric Arc

Plasma Arc

Laser
Weld Metal Protection
Weld Fluxes
Typical fluxes
SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3

Produces a gaseous shield to prevent contamination

Act as scavengers to reduce oxides

Add alloying elements to the weld

Influence shape of weld bead during solidification

Inert Gases

 Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide

 Form a protective envelope around the weld area

 Used in

MIG

TIG

Shield Metal Arc

Vacuum

 Produce high-quality welds

 Used in electron beam welding

 Nuclear / special metal applications

 Zr, Hf, Ti

 Reduces impurities by a factor of 20 versus other methods

 Expensive and time-consuming

Types of Fusion Welding

 Oxyacetylene Cutting / Welding

 Shielded Metal Arc (“Stick”)

 Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)

Oxyacetylene Welding

Flame formed by burning a mix of acetylene (C2H2) and oxygen

Fusion of metal is achieved by passing the inner cone of the flame over the metal

Oxyacetylene can also be used for cutting metals.

Fusion of metal is achieved by passing the inner cone of the flame over the metal

Oxyacetylene can also be used for cutting metals

Torch Tip 2300dF

Inner Cone: 5000-6300 deg F Combustion Envelope 3800 deg F

Shielded Metal Arc (Stick)

 An electric arc is generated between a coated electrode and the parent metal

 The coated electrode carries the electric current to form the arc, produces a gas to
control the atmosphere and provides filler metal for the weld bead

 Electric current may be AC or DC. If the current is DC, the polarity will affect the
weld size and application

Process

Intense heat at the arc melts the tip of the electrode

Shielded Metal Arc (con’t)

 Tiny drops of metal enter the arc stream and are deposited on the parent metal

 As molten metal is deposited, a slag forms over the bead which serves as an insulation
against air contaminants during cooling

 After a weld ‘pass’ is allowed the cool, the oxide layer is removed by a chipping
hammer and then cleaned with a wirebrush before the next pass.
Inert Gas Welding

 For materials such as Al or Ti which quickly form oxide layers, a method to place an
inert atmosphere around the weld puddle had to be developed

 Metal Inert Gas (MIG)

 Uses a consumable electrode (filler wire made of the base metal)

 Inert gas is typically Argon

 Tungsten Inert Gas (MIG)

 Tungsten electrode acts as a cathode

 A plasma is produced between the tungsten cathode and the base metal which heats
the base metal to its melting point

 Filler metal can be added to the weld pool

Welding Positions

VERTICAL OVERHEAD

HORIZONTAL
Joint Design
BUTT JOINT
Generalized Welding Symbol
Example Welding Symbol
Defect

 A flaw or flaws that by nature or accumulated effect render a part or product unable to
meet minimum applicable acceptance standards or specifications. The term designates
reject ability.

 A flaw : small scratches, cracks, inclusions, etc.

Discontinuity

 An interruption of the typical structure of a material, such as a lack of homogeneity in

its mechanical, metallurgical, or physical characteristics.

 A discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

Weld Joint Discontinuities
• Misalignment (hi-lo) • Base Metal
• Undercut  Inclusions Discontinuities
 Slag – Lamellar tearing
• Under fill
 Wagontracks – Laminations and
• Concavity or Convexity  Tungsten Delamination
 Spatter – Laps and Seams
• Excessive reinforcement
 Arc Craters • Porosity
• Improper reinforcement  Cracks – Uniformly Scattered
• Overlap  Longitudinal
 Transverse – Cluster
• Burn-through  Crater
– Linear
• Incomplete or Insufficient  Throat
 Toe – Piping
Penetration
 Root
• Heat-affected zone
• Incomplete Fusion  Underbead and Heat-
affected zone
•
microstructure
Surface irregularity  Hot
 Cold or delayed alteration
– Overlap

• Arc Strikes
• Base Plate laminations
Misalignment (hi-lo)
 Amount a joint is out of alignment at the room.

Cause
Carelessness. Also due to joining different thicknesses (transition thickness).
Prevention
• Workmanship.
• Transition angles not to exceed 2.5 to 1.
Corrective Action
Grinding. Careful on surface finish and direction of grind marks. Inside of Pipe /Tube
difficult.
Undercut

 A groove cut at the toe of the weld and left unfilled.

• A groove melted into the base metal and left unfilled by weld metal.

 Undercut typically has an allowable limit.

 Different codes and standards vary greatly in the allowable amount.

Cause

 High amperage, electrode angle, long arc length, rust.

Undercut (cont......)

Plate - the lesser of 1/32” or 5% (typ.)

Preventive Action

 Decrease amps/volts.

 Decrease travel speed.

 Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stick-out.

 Adjust torch/rod angle.

 Feed more wire into the puddle when manu-al TIG welding.

 Increase stop time (dwell time) on weaved beads.

 Use undercut gauge to verify acceptability.

 Set machine on scrap metal. Clean metal before welding.

Undercut (cont...)

Corrective Action

• Grind the toe of the weld until the unacceptable undercut blends smoothly into the base
material

• Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

• Weld with smaller electrode, sometimes must be low hydrogen with preheat.
Sometimes must gouge first.
Insufficient / Under Fill
 The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of the base metal.

 The amount of weld that is below a straight line drawn from the edges of the joint preparation of a
groove weld, with the exception of allowable undercut.

Cause : Improper welding techniques.

Preventive Action

 Apply proper welding techniques for the weld type and position. Use stripper beads before the cover
pass.

 During welding of the reinforcement, gauge bead heights in any location that appears to be lower
than the rest of the bead.

 Adjust amps/volts.

 Slow travel speed to allow increased weld puddle volume.

 Sequence weld passes so that the toes of the beads sufficiently cover one another, minimizing valleys.

 Apply additional weld beads until the joint is adequately filled.(flush or above)
Insufficient / Under Fill ( Conti…)

Corrective Action

Apply additional weld beads until the joint is adequately filled. ( flush or above)

 Simply weld to fill.

May require preparation by grinding.

Insufficient Fill on the Root Side (suck back)

 The weld surface is below the adjacent surfaces of the base metal at the weld root.

Cause
 Typically improper joint preparation or excessive weld pool heat.
 Some liquids, like water or molten steel, try to cover as much surface area of whatever they
are in contact with as possible.
 Welding a root pass too wide can also cause the bead to sag (overhead position).

Prevention Action
 Correct cause. (see next slide)

Corrective Action

• Back weld to fill.

• May require removal of weld section by grinding for access to the joint root.
Insufficient Fill on the Root Side (suck back) ( Conti…)

Removing a root pass by grinding

Recreate the groove geometry as closely as possible.

 Use a saw or die grinder and 1/16 - 1/8” cut off wheel to recreate root opening.
Remember repairs are sometimes required to be made with a smaller electrode.

 Open the groove angle. Be careful to leave the proper root face dimension.

 Feather the start and stop to blend smoothly into and out of the existing weld.
Excessive Concavity or Convexity

 Concavity or convexity of a fillet weld which exceeds the specified allowable limits.

Cause

 Amperage and travel speed.

Preventive Action

 Observe proper parameters and techniques.

Corrective Action

 Grind off or weld on. Must blend smoothly into the base metal.
Concave Fillet Weld
 A fillet weld that sinks in the center.

Preventive Action

• Adjust amps/volts.

• Decrease travel speed.

• Maintain appropriate arc length/wire sickout.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

• Feed more wire into the puddle when manual TIG welding.

• Increase stop time (dwell time) on weaved beads.

• Sequence weld passes so that the toes of the beads sufficiently cover one another.

Corrective Action

Apply additional weld passes until the concavity requirements have been met.
Concavity
Convex Fillet Weld
 A fillet weld that bulges out in the center.

Preventive Action

 Adjust amps/volts.

 Increase travel speed.

 Maintain proper wire stick out.

 Adjust torch/rod angle.

 Feed less wire into the puddle when manual TIG welding.

 On multiple pass welds, avoid placing beads too close together.

Corrective Action

Grind, carbon arc or weld the affected area until the convexity requirements have been
met.
Convexity
Reinforcement

The amount of a groove weld which extends beyond the surface of the plate.

 Excessive
Face Reinforcement
 Insufficient

 Improper contour

Root Reinforcement
Excessive Reinforcement
 Specifically defined by the standard. Typically, Reinforcement should be flush to
1/16”(pipe) or flush to 1/8” (plate or structural shapes).

 The amount of weld that is above a straight line drawn from the edges of the joint
preparation of a groove weld.

Cause:

Travel speed too slow, amperage too low

Preventive Action

Adjust amps/volts.

Increase travel speed.

Maintain appropriate wire sickout.

Adjust torch/rod angle.

Sequence beads so that the toes do not excessively overlap one another, creating high spots in
the reinforcement.

 Set amperage and travel speed on scrap plate.

Excessive Reinforcement ( Conti…)

Corrective Action
Grind or carbon arc areas of weld reinforcement that exceed the maximum allowable
height (if applicable).

Remove excessive reinforcement and feather the weld toes to a smooth transition to the
base plate.
Insufficient Reinforcement
 Specifically defined by the standard. Typically, Under fill may be up to 5% of metal
thickness not to exceed 1/32” as long as the thickness is made up in the opposite
reinforcement.

 Not applied to fillet welds.

Cause

 On root reinforcement - Too little filler metal will cause thinning of the filler metal. In OH
position, too hot or too wide will cause drooping of the open root puddle.

Preventive Action

 Use proper welding technique. Use backing or consumable inserts. Use back weld or
backing.

Corrective Action

 Possibly simply increase the face reinforcement. If back welding is not possible, must
remove and reweld.
 Improper Weld Contour

• When the weld exhibits less than a 1350 transition angle at the weld toe.
1350

Cause
•Poor welding technique

Preventive Action
•Use proper techniques. A weave or whip motion can often eliminate the problem.

Corrective Action
• The weld face must be feathered into the base plate.
Overlap
 A condition where the weld metal rolls over forming an angle less than 90°. Sometimes
referred to as “weld bead rollover.”
 When the face of the weld extends beyond the toe of the weld.

Cause
 Improper welding technique.
 Improper electrode angles and travel speed.

Preventive Action
 Adjust amps/volts.
 Increase travel speed.
 Maintain appropriate arc length/wire sickout.
 Adjust torch/rod angle.

Corrective Action

• Grind or carbon arc the weld to sound metal.

• Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

 Overlap

• Overlap is measured with a

square edge such as a 6” rule.

• No amount of overlap is
typically allowed.
Burn-through (non-standard)
 When an undesirable open hole has been completely melted through the base metal. The
hole may or may not be left open.

 Excessive heat and/or penetration that results in a hole completely through the backing ring
or strip, fused root, or adjacent base material.

Cause

 Excessive heat input.

Preventive Action

 Reduce heat input by increasing travel speed, use of a heat sink, or by reducing welding
parameters.

 Reduce amps/volts.

 Increase travel speed.

 Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stick out.

 Use ceramic tape or approved metal backing strap on areas with root gap.
Burn-through (non-standard) (Conti…)

 Place ceramic tape or approved metal backing strap on the bottom side of the hole.

 Weld repair the first side of the hole from the easiest side to weld.

 Once sufficient weld metal has been deposited on the easiest top side, grind or carbon
arc the other side of the hole to sound metal.

 Weld the other side of the hole to the appropriate size or height .

 Will be defined by standards. Filling may suffice. Otherwise, removal and re welding
may be required. Some standards may require special filler metal and/or PWHT
Incomplete Fusion
 Where weld metal does not form a cohesive bond with the base metal.

 A situation where the weld metal does not fuse or completely bond with the base metal or
previously deposited weld metal.

Cause: Low amperage, steep electrode angles, fast travel speed, short arc gap, lack of preheat,
electrode too small, unclean base metal, arc off seam.

Preventive Action

 Eliminate the potential causes.

 Increase amps/volts.

 Decrease travel speed.

 Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stick out.

 Adjust torch/rod angle.

 Ensure previous beads are free of overlap

 (bead roll-over) and slag prior to welding additional passes.

Incomplete Fusion (Conti…)

Corrective Action

Remove and reweld, being careful to completely remove the defective area.

This is sometimes extremely difficult to find.

Grind or carbon arc the weld to sound metal.

 Weld repair the affected area.

Incomplete Penetration

 A situation where the weld metal does not penetrate as deeply as required.

 When the weld metal does not extend to the required depth into the joint root.

Cause

 Low amperage, low preheat, tight root opening, fast travel speed, short arc length.

Preventive Action

• Increase the bevel angle and / or root opening Of the fit-up.

• Do not exceed the requirements of the joint design.

• Ensure bevel edges of both members are lined up properly.

• Increase amps/volts.

• Decrease travel speed.

• Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stickout.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

Incomplete Penetration ( Conti…)

Corrective Action

Grind or carbon arc the weld to sound metal.

Note: Back gouge 2nd side to full penetration (remove fusion lines).

Often, more than One fusion line will be present during back gouging.

 Weld repair the affected area.

Arc Strikes
• Discontinuity consisting of any localized remelted metal, heat effected metal, or change in
Surface profile of a finished weld or base material surface resulting from an electrical arc.

• A localized coalescence outside the weld zone.

Note: Arc strikes may develop stress risers which could lead to cracking.

Preventive Action

• Prior to energizing welding equipment, replace damaged welding lines and ground

cables.

• Ensure grounds are properly installed.

• Hang lines on trees or J-hooks.

• Keep gas cups free of weld spatter on flux core processes.

• Do not allow sub-arc tips to contact the base material.

• Be careful when striking an arc.

Arc Strikes (Conti…)

Corrective Action

Grind the affected area until the unacceptable arc strike blends smoothly into the base
material or weld face.

 Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

Where applicable, arc strikes must be sanded smooth and tested for cracks.

 If found, they must be remove and repaired using a qualified repair procedure and
inspected as any other weld.
Slag Inclusion
 The nonmetallic layer that forms on top of the molten metal.

 Slag entrapped within the weld.

Cause:

 Low amperage, improper technique, Trying to weld in an area that is too tight. Slow travel in Vertical
Down.

Preventive Action

Note: Slag is a byproduct of the welding process that cannot be prevented. Below are some actions that
make slag removal easier.

• Adjust amps/volts.

• Maintain a consistent travel speed.

• Maintain an appropriate arc length/wire stick-out.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

• Sequence weld passes so that the toes of the beads sufficiently overlap one another,

minimizing valleys.
Slag Inclusion

Corrective Action

•Completely remove slag from all intermediate weld areas

•Remove all loose slag with a needle gun.

• Grind all tightly adhering, unacceptable slag from the surface of the base material or
weld.
Wagon Tracks (non-standard)

 Slag term for a groove left at the toe of a root pass which becomes filled with slag
and is trapped in the weld.

Cause

 The contour of the root pass is too high, or the weld toe is not bonded to the base
metal.

Preventive Action

 Use proper technique to deposit the weld root.

Corrective Action

 Best repaired before applying the hot pass.

 Carefully grind the root pass face flat. be careful not to gouge other areas on the
weldments.
Tungsten Inclusion

 A tungsten particle embedded in a weld. (Typically GTAW only)

Cause

 Tungsten electrode too small, amperage too high, AC balance on +, Upslope too high,
electrode tip not snipped, electrode dipped into the weld pool or touched with the fill
rod, electrode split.

Prevention

 Eliminate the cause

Corrective Action

 Grind out and reweld

Whiskers

 Unsightly

 Inhibits material flow in piping

 Are inclusions

 Can break off in pipes and damage equipment down line

Spatter
 The metal particles expelled during welding that do not form a part of the weld.

 Small particles of weld metal expelled from the welding operation which adhere to the base metal
surface.

Cause

 Long arc length, severe electrode angles, high amperages.

Preventive Action

• Remove contaminants from the joint (rust, grease, moisture, etc.) prior to welding.

• Maintain filler metal control requirements.

• Use Refrazil to protect surrounding surfaces from secondary weld spatter.

• Adjust amps/volts.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

• Maintain appropriate arc length/wire sickout.

• Use ceramic tape or approved metal backing strap on areas with root gap.

• Consult local Welding Engineering in cases where the base material is magnetized.
Spatter

Corrective Action

Completely remove spatter from all intermediate weld areas

 Remove all loose spatter with a needle gun.

 Grind all tightly adhering, unacceptable spatter until it blends smoothly into the base
material or weld.
Crater Pit

 A hole extending into the weld resulting from shrinkage during cooling.

 A depression left at the termination of the weld where the weld pool is left unfilled.

Cause

 Impropre weld termination techniques

Preventive Action

• Remove contaminants from the joint (rust, grease, moisture, etc.) prior to welding.

• When breaking the arc for TIG welding, rapidly pop the trigger several times to avoid sudden pull-
offs. This will provide sufficient post purge of the weld puddle.

• If no cracks exist, simply fill in the crater. Generally welding from beyond the crater back into the
crater.

Corrective Action

• Grind the weld to sound metal

• Weld repair the affected area, if needed

Roughness

 Sharp ridges (irregularities) or deep valleys between weld beads.

 The angle formed between the adjacent beads of the weld must be 90° or greater.

Preventive Action

• Adjust amps/volts.

• Maintain a consistent travel speed.

• Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stick out.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

• Sequence weld passes so that the toes of the beads sufficiently cover oneanother, minimizing
valleys.

• Consult local Welding Engineering in cases where the base material is magnetized.

Corrective Action

Grind or carbon arc the weld to sound metal.

Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

Corner-Melt
 A groove melted in a corner of a welded member that is left unfilled.

Preventive Action

• Start welds at end of joint and work inward.

• Decrease amps/volts.

• Decrease travel speed.

• Maintain appropriate arc length/wire stick out.

• Adjust torch/rod angle.

• Feed more wire into the puddle when manual TIG welding.

• Increase stop time (dwell time) on weaved beads.

• Use undercut or bridge cam gauge to verify acceptability.

Corrective Action

Grind the toe of the weld until the unacceptable corner-melt blends smoothly into the

base material.

Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

Oxidation

 A condition resulting from partial or complete lack of purge of a surface which is heated during
welding resulting in formation of oxide on the surface.

 This condition may range from slight oxidation evidenced by a multicolored or tightly

adhering black film to the extreme of a very rough surface having crystalline appearance (referred to as
“sugaring.”)

Preventive Action

Ensure adequate pipe purge is maintained prior to and throughout the welding process

Remove contaminants from the joint (rust, rease, moisture, etc.) prior to welding.

Corrective Action

• Grind the weld to sound metal.

• Weld repair the affected area, if needed.

Types of Cracks

 Longitudinal

 Transverse

 Crater

 Throat

 Toe

 Root

 Under bead and Heat-affected zone

 Hot

 Cold or delayed

 We will see them one by one for the next slides.

Cracks

 A tear, fracture or fissure in the weld or base metal appearing as a broken, jagged or straight
line.

Note: Cracks are the most serious defect!

Preventive Action

• Remove contaminants from the joint (rust, grease, moisture, etc.) prior to welding.

• Apply and maintain required preheat.

• Do not allow the base material to cool too quickly.

• Maintain filler metal control requirements.

• Use correct filler metal type for the joint.

• Apply proper bead size and sequencing to eliminate excessive distortion and/or stress in the base
material.

Corrective Action

• Repair in accordance with local procedures.

Longitudinal Crack

 A crack running in the direction of the weld axis. May be found in the weld or base
metal.

Cause

 Preheat or fast cooling problem.

 Also caused by shrinkage stresses in high constraint areas.

Prevention

 Weld toward areas of less constraint. Also preheat to even out the cooling rates.

Corrective Action

 Remove and reweld

Transverse Crack
 A crack running into or inside a weld, transverse to the weld axis direction.

Cause

 Weld metal hardness problem

Prevention:

Repair
Crater Crack

 A crack, generally in the shape of an “X” which is found in a crater.

 Crater cracks are hot cracks.

Cause

 The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the outside of the weld pool,
pulling the center apart during cooling.

Preventive Action

 Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination and/or preheat to even out the
cooling of the puddle
Crater Crack

• A crack, generally in the shape of an “X” which is found in a crater.

• Crater cracks are hot cracks.

Cause

 The center of the weld pool becomes solid before the outside of the weld pool,
pulling the center apart during cooling

Prevention

 Use crater fill, fill the crater at weld termination and/or preheat to even out the
cooling of the puddle.

Repair
Throat Crack
 A longitudinal crack located in the weld throat area.

Cause

 Transverse Stresses, probably from shrinkage.

 Indicates inadequate filler metal selection or welding procedure.

 May be due to crater crack propagation.

Preventive Action

 Correct initial cause. Increasing preheat may prevent it.

 Be sure not to leave a crater. Use a more ductile filler material.

Repair

 Remove and reweld using appropriate procedure. Be sure to correct initial problem
first.
Toe Crack

 A crack in the base metal beginning at the toe of the weld.

Cause

 Transverse shrinkage stresses.

 Indicates a HAZ brittleness problem.

Preventive Action

 Increase preheat if possible, or use a more ductile filler material.

 Repair:
Root Crack

 A crack in the weld at the weld root.

Cause

 Transverse shrinkage stresses.

 Same as a throat crack.

Preventive Action

 Same as a throat crack.

 Repair
Under bead Crack
 A crack in the unmelted parent metal of the HAZ.

Cause

 Hydrogen embrittlement

Preventive Action

 Use Lo/Hi electrodes and/or preheat

Repair

 (only found using NDT).

 Remove and reweld.

Hot Crack

 A crack in the weld that occurs during solidification.

Cause

Micro stresses from weld metal shrinkage pulling apart weld metal as it cools from liquid
to solid temp.

Preventive Action

 Preheat or use a low tensile filler material.

 Repair:
Cold Crack
 A crack that occurs after the metal has completely solidified.

Cause

 Shrinkage, Highly restrained welds, Discontinuities.

Preventive Action

 Preheat, weld toward areas of less constraint, use a more ductile weld metal.

Repair

 Remove and reweld, correct problem first, preheat may be necessary.

Repairs to Cracks

 Determine the cause

 Correct the problem

 Take precautions to prevent reoccurrence

 Generally required to repair using a smaller electrode

Base Metal Discontinuities

 Lamellar tearing

 Laminations and Delamination

 Laps and Seams

Laminations

 Base Metal Discontinuity

• May require repair prior to welding

• Formed during the milling process

Lamination effects can be reduced by joint design:
Delamination
Laps and Seams

A mill-induced discontinuity in which results from a lump of metal being squeezed over into
the surface of the material.

If beyond acceptable limits, must be removed and repaired or discarded.

Types of Porosity

Single Pore

Separated by at least their own diameter along the axis of the weld.

Uniformly Scattered Porosity

•Typically judged by diameter and proximity to a start or stop.

•often caused by low amperage or short arc gap or an unshielded weld start.

Cluster Porosity

•Typically viewed as a single large discontinuity.

Linear Porosity

•Being linear greatly affects the severity of this discontinuity .

Piping Porosity

•Generally has special allowable limits

Porosity ( Conti…)

Corrective Action of Porosity

Preheat will help eliminate

May need an electrode with more deoxidizers

Use run-on/run-off taps

Restart on top of previous weld and grind off lump

Heat-affected zone microstructure alteration

 Add drawing of HAZ of groove weld with leaders to:

 grain refinement

 grain growth

 hardened areas

 softened areas

 precipitate susceptible areas.

Size or dimension

 If it renders the part unusable, it is a defect.

 If it is outside the allowable limit, it renders the part unusable.

 Things don’t have to be perfect, just within the acceptable tolerance.

 Working to perfection is too time consuming and costly

Hammer marks

 Stress risers

 Unsightly

 Unnecessary
Repair Techniques

 May involve:

 different process

 different procedure

 different preheat/PWHT

 different electrode

 smaller electrode
Parts of a Weld
Parts of a Weld (Conti…)
 Only repair defects.
Discontinuities are, by
definition, acceptable.
Repair is therefore
unnecessary and not cost
effective.
Inspection Tools
Measuring Weld Sizes
 Fillet Weld Size - For equal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest isosceles
right triangle that can be inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.

 For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg lengths of the largest right triangle that can be
inscribed within the fillet weld cross section.
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Fibre Metal Fillet Gage
Undercut Guage

Gal Gage Co.

Palmgrin Guage
 Magnifying Glass

Used to read small scales

 Flashlight

Used to cast shadows to find porosity, undercut and overlap.