TRADITIONAL MACHINING

OPERATION
 out line
 kinematics of machine tools

 cutting-tool technology

 mechanism and mechanics of machining

 orthogonal and oblique metal cutting operation

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 KINEMATICS OF MACHINE TOOLS
On centre lathe machine (Turning operation)
o Turning is a machining process in which a single –point tool
removes material from the surface of a rotating cylindrical work
piece.
o The tool is fed linearly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation.
o Turning is traditionally carried out on a machine tool called a
lathe.

2
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN TURNING
 The main cutting conditions/cutting parameters in
turning are
 Cutting speed/cutting velocity, V
 Feed
 Depth of cut, d
 Cutting speed, V:- the rate of traverse of the work
surface past the cutting edge of the cutting tool.
V=πDoN/1000 , m/minute
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 Where Do = original diameter of the part in milimeter

N = rotational speed of the spindle in rev/minute
 Feed, f:- Is the translatory displacement of the cutting edge
of the tool along the work surface during a given period of
time.
 It is expressed in mm/rev.
 This feed can be converted to a linear travel rate in
mm/min by the formula
fr = Nf
Where fr = feed rate in mm/min.
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 Depth of cut, d:- is the perpendicular distance b/n the
atmospheric surface and the generated surface on the work
piece.
d = (Do –Df)/2 in mm
 The turning operation reduces the diameter of the work
from its original diameter Do to Df.
 The time to machine from one end of a cylindrical work
part to the other is given by
Tm = L/fr or Tm = (πLDo)/fV
Where Tm is machining time in minute and L is length of the
cylindrical work part in mm.
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 Thevolumetric rate of material removal or the

material removal rate(MRR) is
MRR= Vfd in mm3/min
 DRILLING OPERATION

 Drilling
is a machining operation used to create
a round hole in a work part
 Drillingis usually performed with a rotating
cylindrical tool (drill/drill bit) that has two
cutting edges on its working end.
 Therotating drill feeds into the stationary work
part to form a hole whose diameter is equal to
the drill diameter.
CUTTING CONDITIONS IN DRILLING
 Cutting
speed, V :- is the surface speed at outside
diameter of the drill.
V = πDN/1000 in m/minute
Where D = the drill diameter in mm
N= spindle rotational speed in rev/min
 Feed,f:- in drilling is specified in mm/rev and it
can be converted to feed rate by
fr = Nf in mm/min.
 Drilling holes are either through holes or blind
holes.
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 Themachining/drilling time required to drill a
through hole is
Tm = (t + A)/fr in minute
Where t = work thickness in mm
A = approach allowance in mm that accounts
for the drill point angle, representing the
distance the drill must fed in to the work before
reaching full diameter,
A= 0.5Dtan(90 –ѳ/2) and
Ѳ= drill point angle
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 Inblind hole, hole depth d is defined as the
distance from the work surface to the point of the
hole.
 Sothe drill point angle allowance does not affect
the time to drill the hole.
 Thus, for blind hole machining time is
Tm = d/fr in minute
The rate of metal removal in drilling is determined
as the product of the drill cross-sectional area and
the feed rate
MRR =
 MILLING OPERATION

 Milling
is a machining operation in which a
work part is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool
with multiple cutting edges.
 The axis of rotation of the cutting tool is
perpendicular to the direction of feed.
 The cutting tool in milling is called milling
cutter and the cutting edges are called teeth.
 MACHINING PARAMETRES IN MILLING
 In milling, each tooth on a tool removes part of the stock in the form
of a chip

Basic plain milling operation

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 Cutting speed V:- is the peripheral speed of the

cutter or it is the relative speed between tool and
work piece and has a largest impact on tool life and
product quality
V= πDN/1000[m/min]
 Where V is cutting speed in m/min, D is the cutter
outer diameter in mm, N is the rotational speed of
the cutter or spindle speed in rpm.
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 feed f:- Three types of feed in milling can be

identified:
 feed per tooth fz(mm/tooth): the basic parameter

in milling equivalent to the feed in turning.

  feed per revolution fr (mm/revolution): it

determines the amount of material cut per one full

revolution of the milling cutter
fr = fz.z
 Where z being the number of the cutter’s teeth;
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Ž feed per minute fm(mm/min): Feed per minute is

calculated taking into account the rotational speed
N and number of the cutter’s teeth z, 
fm = fz.z.N = fr.N
 Depthof cut d, (mm): is the depth of the metal
removed in a single pass of the cutting tool.
 The MRR is the product of the cross-sectional area
of the cut and the feed rate
 Ifslab milling operation is cutting a w/p with
width w at a depth d, the MRR is
MRR = wdfm
MACHINING TIME IN MILLING, TM
EXAMPLE

Fig. Plain /slab milling operation

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 Following the Fig. the machining time, Tm for plain
milling a flat surface can be determined as,
Tm = Lc / fm (for job width < cutter length)
 Where Lc = total length of travel of the job
= Lw + A + O + Dc /2
 Lw = length of the work piece
 a, o = approach and over run (5 to 10 mm)
Dc= diameter of the cutter, mm
fm = table feed, mm/min
= fzZN

 EXERCISE-1

 1.How much machining time will be required to

reduce the diameter of a cast iron rod from 150 mm to
120mm over a length of 200 mm by turning using a
carbide insert. take V = 100m/min and f = 0.2mm/rev?
 EXERCISE -2
2. Determine the time that will be required to drill a
hole of diameter 30 mm and thickness of the work
50 mm in a mild steel solid block by a HSS drill of
118 cone angle. Assume V = 25m/min and f =
0.16mm/rev?
 EXERCISE-3
3. A peripheral milling operation is performed on
the top surface of a rectangular work part which is
500mm long by 80mm wide. The milling cutter
which is 100mm in diameter and has five teeth,
overhangs the width of the part on both sides. The
cutting speed is 85m/min, the chip load is 0.25
mm/tooth, and the depth of cut is 7mm.
Determine
a) The time to make one pass across the surface.
b) The maximum MRR during the cut.
CUTTING-TOOL TECHNOLOGY

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 CUTTING-TOOL TECHNOLOGY
 Cutting tool technology has two principal aspects: tool
material and tool geometry.
 The first is concerned with developing materials that can
withstand the forces, temperatures, and wearing action in
the machining process.
 The second deals with optimizing the geometry of the
cutting tool for the tool material and for a given operation.
 Itis appropriate to begin by considering tool life, because
this is important our subsequent discussion on tool
materials and geometry.
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 TOOL LIFE
 Tool life is defined as the length of cutting time that the tool can
be used.
 Operating the tool until final failure is one way of defining tool
life.
 There are three possible modes by which a cutting tool can fail
in machining:
1. Fracture failure: This mode of failure occurs when the cutting
force at the tool point becomes excessive, causing it to fail
suddenly by brittle fracture.
2. Temperature failure: This failure occurs when the cutting
temperature is too high for the tool material, causing the material
at the tool point to soften, which leads to plastic deformation and
loss of the sharp edge. 24
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3. Gradual wear: Gradual wearing of the cutting edge
causes loss of tool shape, reduction in cutting
efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool
becomes heavily worn, and finally tool failure in a
manner similar to a temperature failure.
o Fracture and temperature failures result in premature
loss of the cutting tool. These two modes of failure
are therefore undesirable. Of the three possible tool
failures, gradual wear is preferred because it leads to
the longest possible use of the tool, with the
associated economic advantage of that longer use. 25
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o Gradual wear occurs at two principal locations on a
cutting tool: the top rake face and the flank. Accordingly,
two main types of tool wear can be distinguished: crater
wear and flank wear, illustrated in Figures

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Types of wear observed in cutting tools

 TOOL WEAR
 Crater wear, consists of a cavity in the rake face of the tool
that forms and grows from the action of the chip sliding
against the surface. High stresses and temperatures
characterize the tool–chip contact interface, contributing to the
wearing action. The crater can be measured either by its
depth or its area.
 Flank wear, occurs on the flank, of the tool. It results from
rubbing between the newly generated work surface and the
flank face adjacent to the cutting edge. Flank wear is
measured by the width of the wear band. This wear band is
sometimes called the flank wear land. 27
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 Corner wear, occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered

as a part of the wear land. Corner wear actually shortens the

cutting tool thus increasing gradually the dimension of
machined surface and introducing a significant dimensional
error in machining.

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 TOOL…
 As cutting proceeds, the various wear mechanisms

result in increasing levels of wear on the cutting tool.

 Thegeneral relationship of tool wear versus cutting
time is shown in Figure

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Fig. Tool wear as a function of cutting time. Flank wear (FW) is used here as the
measure of tool wear. Crater wear follows a similar growth curve
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 Break-in period, in which the sharp cutting edge wears
rapidly at the beginning of its use. This first region
occurs within the first few minutes of cutting.
 Steady-state wear, this region is pictured as a linear
function of time. Finally, wear reaches a level at which
the wear rate begins to accelerate.
 Failureregion, in which cutting temperatures are higher,
and the general efficiency of the machining process is
reduced. If allowed to continue, the tool finally fails by
temperature failure.
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 The slope of the tool wear curve in the steady-state region
is affected by work material and cutting conditions.
 Harder work materials cause the wear rate to increase.
 Increased speed, feed, and depth of cut have a similar
effect, with speed being the most important of the three.

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Fig. Effect of cutting speed on tool flank wear (FW) for three cutting speeds.
 TAYLOR TOOL LIFE EQUATION
 Ifthe tool life values for the three wear curves in the above
Figure are plotted on a natural log–log graph of cutting
speed versus tool life, the resulting relationship is a
straight line as shown in Figure

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 TAYLOR….
 It can be expressed in equation form and is called the
Taylor tool life equation:

 wherev =cutting speed , m/min; T= tool life, min ; and

The value of n is relative constant for a given tool material,
whereas the value of C depends on tool material, work
material, and cutting conditions.

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 TOOL MATERIALS
The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three
important properties required in a tool material:
 Toughness: To avoid fracture failure, the tool material
must possess high toughness. Toughness is the capacity
of a material to absorb energy without failing. It is
usually characterized by a combination of strength and
ductility in the material.
 Hot hardness: Hot hardness is the ability of a material to
retain its hardness at high temperatures. This is required
because of the high-temperature environment in which
the tool operates. 34
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 Wear resistance: Hardness is the single most
important property needed to resist abrasive wear.
Other characteristics affecting wear resistance include
surface finish on the tool (a smoother surface means a
lower coefficient of friction), chemistry of tool and
work materials, and whether a cutting fluid is used.
 Cutting-toolmaterials achieve this combination of
properties in varying degrees are: High Speed Steel
(HSS), Cemented Carbides, Cermets, Coated
Carbides, Ceramics, Synthetic Diamonds
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Fig. Data on properties of various tool materials

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37
 TOOL GEOMETRY
 Material and geometry of tools – equally important
 Those play important roles on: Effectiveness,
efficiency and economics of machining
• Tool geometry substantially/ largely affects :
— mechanism & mechanics of chip formation
— cutting temperature and wear
— tool life and product accuracy and finish

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 CNTD…
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of
major cutting edges (points) involved as follows:
 Single point: e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting
tools
 Double (two) point: e.g., drills
 Multipoint(more than two): e.g., milling cutters, hobs, gear
shaping cutters etc.
 Many of the principles that apply to single-point tools also
apply to the other cutting-tool types, simply because the
mechanism of chip formation is basically the same for all
machining operations.
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 Thegeometry of a single point cutting tool is

determined by the following:
 Faceor rake surface, which is the surface of cutting tool
over which the chip flows.
 Flank surface, which is the surface below the cutting
edge , there are two flank surfaces, namely principal
and auxiliary flank surfaces.
 Cuttingedge that remove material from the work piece.
There are two cutting edges. The principal cutting edge
and auxiliary cutting edge or end cutting edge. 40
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 Corner or cutting point, which is meeting point of the
principal and auxiliary cutting edges. Often a nose
radius is provided to avoid a sharp corner.

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Basic features of single point tool (turning) in Tool-in-hand system

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 Concept of rake and clearance angles

• Tool geometry refers to some specific angles or
slopes of its salient faces and edges
• Rake angle and clearance angle – most imp.
• Illustration of rake and clearance of SPTT.

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 Rake angle,γ, angle of inclination of rake surface from
reference plane
 Clearance angle,α,angle of inclination of clearance or
flank surface from the finished surface.
 Rake angle may be positive, negative or even zero

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Rake angle –types and their significance.

Positive rake:
 Positive
rake or increased rake angle reduces
compression, the forces, and the friction, less
deformed and cooler chip
 Ifthe rake angle +ve and very large the cutting tool
vary small and the tool mechanically weak.
 Ifthe tool material brittle in nature we cannot use
+ve rake.
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 CNTD…
Negative rake:
 To provide greater strength at the cutting edge and
better heat conductivity, zero or negative rake angles
employed on carbide, ceramic, polycrystalline
diamond cutting tools.
 Thesematerials tend to be brittle but their ability to
hold their superior hardness at high temperature
result in their selection for high speed and
continuous machining operation.
 Negative rake causes high compression, tool forces
45
and friction, resulting in highly deformed, hot chip
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The rake angle for a tool depends on the following factors:
1. Type of the material being cut: a harder material like
cast iron may be machined by smaller rake angle than
that required by soft material like mild steel or
aluminum.
2. Type of tool material: tool material like cemented
carbide permits turning at high speed. At high speeds
rake angle has little influence on cutting pressure.
Under such condition the rake angle can minimum or
even negative rake angle is provided to increase the
tool strength.
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 CNTD…
3. Depth of cut: in rough turning , high depth of cut is
given to remove the maximum amount of the material.
This means that the tool has to withstand severe cutting
pressure. So the rake angle should be decreased to
increase the strength of the cutting edge.
4. Rigidity of tool holder and machine: if supported tool
on old or worn out machine cannot take up high cutting
pressure. So while machining under above condition,
the tool used should have larger rake angle.

47
 GEOMETRY OF DRILL BIT

 Body, the fluted portion of a drill

 Flutes, the helical grooves cut or formed in the body of the drill to
provide cutting edges and permit removal of chips.
 Dead center, the dead center or chisel edge of the drill is the
sharp edge at extreme tip end of a drill.
 Helix angle or rake angle, the angle b/n the drill axis and the
leading edge of the land . 48
GEOMETRY OF MILLING CUTTER

Tool geometry elements plain milling cutter

49

Tool geometry elements of a four-tooth face milling cutter

MECHANISM AND
MECHANICS OF
MACHINING

50
 MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION
 Machining is characterized by gradual material
removal in the form of chips.
 The form of chips is an important index of machining
as it indicates :
• Nature and behavior of the work material under
machining
• Specific energy requirement to machine
• Nature and degree of interaction at the work – tool
interfaces.
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MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION IN
MACHINING
 The form and color of chips depend upon:

• Types Work material

• Material and geometry of the cutting tool

• Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to

some extent on depth of cut

• Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects

temperature and friction

52
 MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION IN
MACHINING DUCTILE MATERIALS
 Duringcontinuous machining the uncut layer of the
work material just ahead of the cutting tool is subjected
to almost all sided compression.

53
 CNTD…
 The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises the
normal force, N and frictional force, F
 Due to compression, shear stress develops, within that
compressed region, in different magnitude, in different
directions and rapidly increases in magnitude.
 Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress
reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work
material in the deformation region, yielding or slip takes
place resulting shear deformation in that region
54
 (a) rectangular grids (b) circular grids

Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation.

55
 MECHANISM OF CHIP FORMATION IN
MACHINING BRITTLE MATERIALS
 The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation
 Yielding – generally for ductile materials
 Brittle fracture – generally for brittle materials

56
Development and propagation of crack causing chip
separation.
 CONTD…..

 During machining, first a small crack develops at the

tool tip of the cutting edge.
 At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes place
and crack quickly propagates, under stressing action,
and total separation takes place from the parent work
piece through the minimum resistance path.
 Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous
chips and mostly of irregular size and shape.
57
Schematic view of chip formation in machining
brittle materials.
58
Geometrical characteristics of continuous chips
 Chip reduction coefficient ( ζ ) & cutting ratio (r)

59
60
SHEAR ANGLE

61
 SHEAR ANGLE
 It has been observed that during machining,
particularly ductile materials, the chip sharply
changes its direction of flow (relative to the tool)
from the direction of the cutting velocity, Vc to vf
that along the tool rake surface after thickening by
shear deformation or slip along a plane.
 This plane is called shear plane ( is the plane of
separation of work material layer in the form of chip
from the parent body due to shear along that plane).
 Shear angle: Angle of inclination of the shear plane
from the direction of cutting velocity. 62
TYPES OF CHIPS AND CONDITIONS FOR
FORMATION OF THOSE CHIPS

The basic major types of chips and the conditions

generally under which such types of chips form are
given below:

TYPES OF CHIPS
1. Serrated
2. Built-up edge
3. Discontinuous
4. Continuous 63
FIGURE 21.9 Four
types of chip formation
in metal cutting:
(a) discontinuous,
(b) continuous,
(c) continuous with
built-up edge,
(d) serrated.

64
 SERRATED CHIPS
 These chips are semi-continuous in the sense that they
possess a saw-tooth appearance that is produced by a
cyclical chip formation of alternating high shear strain
followed by low shear strain.

 This chip is most closely associated with certain difficult-to-

machine metals such as titanium alloys, nickel-base super
alloys, and austenitic stainless steels when they are
machined at higher cutting speeds. However, the
phenomenon is also found with more common work metals
(e.g., steels) when they are cut at high speeds
65
 BUILT-UP EDGE CHIPS

 A built-up edge (BUE) may form at the tip of the tool during
cutting. This edge consists of layers of material from the work
piece that are gradually deposited on the tool (hence the term
built-up).
 As it becomes larger, the BUE becomes unstable and eventually
breaks up.
 Part of the BUE material is carried away by the tool side of the
chip; the rest is deposited randomly on the work piece surface.
 The process of BUE formation and destruction is repeated
continuously during the cutting operation. 66
 BUILT-UP-EDGE (BUE) FORMATION
 Causes of formation
 In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-
tool contact length, lot of stress and temperature
develops in the secondary deformation zone at the
chip-tool interface.
 Under such high stress and temperature in between
two clean surfaces of metals, strong bonding may
locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding.
Such bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if
the chip tool materials have mutual affinity or
67
solubility.
 CNTD…
 The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the
most favorable location and thus gradually grows.

68

Scheme of built-up-edge formation

Characteristics of BUE
Shape, size and bond strength of BUE depends on:
 work – tool materials
 tool geometry
 stress and temperature
 cutting fluid application

69
 70
Overgrowing and overflowing of BUE causing
surface roughness
 EFFECTS OF BUE FORMATION
 Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects
• It unfavorably changes the rake angle at the tool tip
causing increase in cutting forces and power
consumption
• Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes
fluctuation in cutting forces and thus induces vibration
which is harmful for the tool, job and the machine tool.
• Surface finish gets deteriorated
• May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at
its rake surface by adhesion.
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 Discontinuous type CHIP
 of irregular size and shape : - work material – brittle
like grey cast iron,
 ofregular size and shape : - work material ductile but
hard
 It generates during
- large feed and depth of cut is giving
- Highly tool–chip friction
- The tool rake angle inclination is negative
- Absent or inadequate of cutting fluid application 72
 DISCONTINUOUS TYPE CHIP
 When relatively brittle materials (e.g., cast irons) are
machined at low cutting speeds, the chips often form into
separate segments (sometimes the segments are loosely
attached).

 This tends to impart an irregular texture to the

machined surface. High tool–chip friction and large
feed and depth of cut promote the formation of this chip
type.
73
CNTD…
Continuous type
• Without BUE : work material – ductile (aluminum, mild
steel, brass )
 Cutting velocity – high
 Feed – low
 Rake angle – positive and large
 Cutting fluid – both cooling and lubricating

• With BUE : -work material – ductile & sticky (low carbon

still, copper etc )
- cutting velocity – medium
- feed – medium or large
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- cutting fluid – inadequate or absent.
 CONTINUOUS CHIP
 . When ductile work materials are cut at high speeds and
relatively small feeds and depths, long continuous chips are
formed.
 A good surface finish typically results when this chip type is
formed.
 A sharp cutting edge on the tool and low tool–chip friction
encourage the formation of continuous chips. Long, continuous

 chips (as in turning) can cause problems with regard to chip

disposal and/or tangling about the tool.
 To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with
chip breakers
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 MACHINING FORCES
BENEFIT OF KNOWING AND PURPOSE OF
DETERMINING CUTTING FORCES

o The aspects of the cutting forces concerned :

 Magnitude of the cutting forces and their components

 Directions and locations of action of those forces

 Nature of the forces : static and / or dynamic.

76
 Knowing or determination of the cutting forces facilitate or
are required for :
 Estimationof cutting power consumption, which also
enables selection of the power source(s) during design of
the machine tools
 Evaluation of role of the various machining parameters on
cutting forces
 Study
of behavior and machinability characterization of the
work materials
 Condition monitoring of the cutting tools and machine tools.
77
 CUTTING FORCE COMPONENTS AND THEIR
SIGNIFICANCES
 Cutting forces in turning
 The single point cutting tools being used for turning,
shaping, planing, slotting, boring etc. are
characterized by having only one cutting force
during machining.
 But that force is resolved into two or three
components for ease of measurements/analysis.
 The Fig. below shows how the single cutting force in
turning is resolved into three components along the
78
three orthogonal directions; X, Y and Z.
 79

Turning force resolved into PZ, PX and PY

 The resultant cutting force, R is resolved as,
R = PZ + PXY , and
PXY = PX + PY
 where, PX = PXY sinφ and PY = PXYcosφ
PZ = tangential component taken in the
direction of Zm axis
 PX = axial component taken in the direction of
longitudinal feed or Xm axis
 PY = radial or transverse component taken along
Ym axis. 80
o Significance of PZ, PX and PY
 PZ : called the main or major component as it is the
largest in magnitude. It is also called power component
as it being acting along and being multiplied by VC
decides cutting power (PZ.VC) consumption.
 Py : may not be that large in magnitude but is
responsible for causing dimensional inaccuracy and
vibration.
 PX : It, even if larger than PY, is least harmful and hence
least significant.
81
 Cutting forces in drilling
In a drill there are two main cutting edges and a small chisel
edge at the centre as shown.
The force components that develop (Fig.) during drilling
operation are :
A pair of tangential forces, PT1 and PT2 (equivalent to PZ in
turning) at the main cutting edges
 Axial forces PX1 and PX2 acting in the same direction at the
main cutting edge.
A pair of identical radial force components, PY1 and PY2
 One additional axial force, PXe at the chisel edge
which also removes material at the centre. 82
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83

Cutting forces in drilling.

 CNTD…
 PT1 and PT2 produce the torque, T and causes power

consumption PC as,
T = PT x ½ (D) and
PC= 2πTN
where, D = diameter of the drill and
N = speed of the drill in rpm.
 The total axial force PXT which is normally very large in
drilling, is provided by
PXT = PX1 + PX2 + PXe
 But there is no radial or transverse force as PY1 and PY2,
being in opposite direction, nullify each other if the
84
 tool geometry is perfectly symmetrical.
 Cutting forces in milling
The cutting forces (components) developed in milling with
straight slab milling cutter under single tooth engagement
are shown below.
The forces provided by a single tooth at its angular position,
ψI are :
Tangential force PTi (equivalent to PZ in turning)
 Radial or transverse force, PRi (equivalent to PXY in turning)
 R is the resultant of PT and PR
• R is again resolved into PZ and PY as indicated when Z and
85
Y are the major axes of the milling machine.
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86
Cutting forces developed in plain milling
(with single tooth engagement)
 CNTD…
 Those forces have the following significance:
 PT governs the torque, T on the cutter or the milling
arbour as: T = PT x D/2
and also the power consumption, PC as
PC = 2πTN
where, N = rpm of the cutter.
 The other forces, PR, PZ, PY etc are useful for design of
the Machine – Fixture – Tool system.
 In case of multi-tooth engagement;
 Total torque will be D/2.ΣPTi and total force in Z and Y
87
direction will be ΣPZ and ΣPY respectively.
ORTHOGONAL AND OBLIQUE
METAL
CUTTING OPERATION

88
THEORY OF CHIP FORMATION IN METAL
MACHINING
 The geometry of most practical machining operations is
somewhat complex.
 A simplified model of machining is available that
neglects many of the geometric complexities, yet
describes the mechanics of the process quite well. It is
called the orthogonal cutting model,
 Although an actual machining process is three-
dimensional, the orthogonal
 model has only two dimensions that play active roles in
the analysis.
 Orthogonal Cutting Model
A simplified 2-D model of machining that describes the
mechanics of machining fairly accurately

Figure 7 ‑ Orthogonal cutting: (a) as a three‑dimensional process

 Forces Acting on Chip
 Friction force F and Normal force to friction N
 Shear force Fs and Normal force to shear Fn

Figure 14 ‑
Forces in metal
cutting: (a) forces
acting on the chip
in orthogonal
cutting