Unit – 5

Memory and Forgetting

Concept of Memory
• Memory is the term given to the structures and process involved in the storage and
subsequent retrieval of information.
• Memory is our cognitive system for storing and retrieving information. It is the process by
which we encode, store and retrieve information.
• Memory a basic cognitive function by which we draw on our past experiences in order to
use this information in the present consciousness.
According to Baddeley ,“Memory is an active system that receive information from
sense, organizes and alter it as it stores it away and retrieve the information from storage.”
• Memory is the faculty of the mind by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Memory is a system or process by which result of learning are stored for the future use.
Memory process is essentially the capacity for storing and retrieving information.
• Three processes are involved in memory: encoding, storage, and retrieval. All three of
these processes determine whether something is remembered or forgotten:
1. Encoding
• It is getting information in. The first step in the memory process is to get
sensory information in to the brain that is called encoding.
• Encoding is a set of mental process that people perform on sensory information
to convert information into a form that is usable in the brain’s storage system.
• Like the computer key board entries and transform symbols to electronic
process which may be stored in computer disk, our sense of organs collects
information and converts in to neural events that can be stored and used by the
brain.
• For example, people hear a sound their ear turn the vibration in the air in to
neural message from auditory nerves, which make it possible for the brain to
interpret that sound.
2. Storage
• The next step in the memory is to hold the information for some period of time
that is called storage. It is the retention of information in the brain.
• Memory has been often called store house. Some information are stored for
one period of time, use very less and discarded while other are frequently used
and stored more permanently.
• The encoded information recorded in the nervous system is called memory
trace. Some memory traces are isolated and being used in practice frequently,
they will be pushed out of memory and then forgotten.
• This period of time will be actually different lengths depending up on the stage
of memory being used such as sensory memory, short term memory and long
term memory.
• Sensory memory stores information only the fraction of a second whereas short
term memory retains for 12 to 20 seconds but long term memory retains
information unlimited time.
3. Retrieval
• Once, information are stored in computer, it can be obtained whenever we
want. So, the way of bringing the stored information in conscious mind is called
retrieval.
• It is the final stage of memory process where stored information can be used.
• Psychologists have explained three distinct ways of retrieving information i.e.
recall, recognition and relearning method. Recall is bringing past experience in
to present consciousness in the absence of stimuli. Where information are
retrieved in the presence of stimulus we have already experienced is called
recognition. It is the process of relearning of forgotten information where
individuals’ feel easier than before.
 Memory System
Memory is the mental function that enables you to acquire, retain, and recall sensations,
impressions, information, and thoughts you have experienced. To help understand memory
as a whole, you can think of memory in terms of stages. The different stages describe the
length of time that information remains available to you.
The three stages of memory are:
1. Sensory memory
2. Short-term memory
3. Long-term memory
Information processing begins in sensory memory, moves to short-term memory, and
eventually moves into long-term memory. Information that you come across on a daily
basis may move through the three stages of memory. However, not all information makes
its way through all three stages. Most of it is forgotten somewhere along the way. The
determination of what information makes its way through the different stages depends on
what you pay attention to and process. Information that you pay attention to and process
will move to the next stage of memory. However, any information you to do not pay
attention to never makes it way to the next stage.
1. Sensory Memory
• Sensory memory is the first stage of memory. Its purpose is to give your brain time
to process the incoming information. Sensory memory is not consciously
controlled. You subconsciously and continuously gather information from the
environment through your five senses.
• Sensory memory holds impressions of that sensory information that was received
by your five senses after the original stimulus has stopped. However, it only holds it
for a very brief period, generally for no longer than a second. In order for that
information to be retained for longer, it has to continue onto short-term memory.
• Most of the information that gets into sensory memory is forgotten. It never makes
its way into the second stage of memory because it was never attended to. To get
information into short-term memory, you need to pay attention to it.
• Sensory memory can be observed if you look at an object then close your eyes. As
your eyes close, you can notice how the visual image is maintained for a fraction of
a second before fading. It is your sensory memory that is holding that image.
Types of Sensory memory
i. Iconic memory is the visual sensory memory that holds the mental representation of
your visual stimuli.
ii. Echoic memory is the auditory sensory memory that hold information that you hear.
iii. Haptic memory is the tactile sensory memory that holds information from your
sense of feeling.

2. Short-term Memory
• Short-term Memory Short-term memory (STM) is also known as working or active
memory. It holds the information you are currently thinking about. This information
will quickly be forgotten unless you make a conscious effort to retain it.
• Like sensory memory, short-term memory holds information temporarily, pending
further processing. However, unlike sensory memory which holds the complete image
received by your senses, short term memory only stores your interpretation of the
image.
Temporary Storage
• Information in short-term memory is not stored permanently. Information passes from
sensory memory into short-term memory, where again it is held for only a short period
of time.
• Most of the information stored in short-term memory will only be kept for
approximately 20 to 45 seconds. While many of your short-term memories are quickly
forgotten, paying attention to the information and processing (encoding) it allows it to
continue into long-term memory. Just as sensory memory is a necessary step for short-
term memory, short-term memory is a necessary step toward the next stage of
retention, long-term memory.
• Processing or encoding includes making judgments and assessments about meaning,
relevance, and significance of that information. It also includes the mental activities
needed to move selected portions of the information into long-term memory. If
encoding never happens, the information never gets into long-term memory.
• The reason a person forgets the name of someone to whom he or she has just been
introduced to is because the name often was never encoded and transferred from
short-term to long-term memory.
Limited capacity
Short-term memory not only has a limited time, it also has a limited capacity. It is
believed to only hold a few items. Research shows the number is around 7 +/- 2
items. For example, if a person is asked to listen to a series of 20 names, he or
she normally retains only about seven names. Typically, it is either the first few or
last few. The reason is because if you focuses on the first few items, your STM
becomes saturated, and you cannot concentrate on and recall the last series of
items. People are able to retain more information using memory techniques such
as chunking or rehearsal.
3. Long-term Memory
• Long-Term Memory (LTM) refers to the storage of information over an extended
period. It is all the memories you hold for periods longer than a few seconds.
• The information can last in your long-term memory for hours, days, months, or
even years. Although you may forget some information after you learn it, other
things will stay with you forever.
• Some information retained in STM is processed or encoded into long-term
memory. This information is filed away in your mind and must be retrieved
before it can be used. Some of the information in your LTM is easy to recall,
while other memories are much more difficult to retrieve.
• Unlike short-term memory, long-term memory has seemingly unlimited
capacity. You may remember numerous facts and figures, as well as episodes in
your life from years ago.
 Types of long-term memory
There are main two types of long term memory; explicit memory and implicit memory.
a. Explicit memory
• Explicit memory are those experiences that can be intentionally and consciously
remembered. It is knowledge or experiences that can be consciously remembered such as
facts, data, episodes, or events.
• Explicit memory can be further sub-categorized as either episodic or semantic memories.
• Episodic memory refers to the firsthand experiences that you have had (e.g. episodes or
events in your life). For example, you may remember your 16 th birthday party or your first
soccer game. Semantic memory refers to knowledge of facts and concepts about the
world. For example, you may remember the names of presidents or how to multiple two
numbers.
b. Implicit memory
Implicit memory refers to knowledge that we cannot consciously access. It is remembering
without awareness. For example, you may remember how to ride a bike or walk, but it is
difficult to explain how you do it.
 Multi Store Model of Memory / Atkinson and Shiffrin Model
• The multi store model of memory was proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
and is a structural model. T
• He proposed that memory consisted of three stores: Sensory register, Short-
term memory (STM) and Long-term memory (LTM).
• Information passes from store to store in a linear way, and has been described
as an information processing model (like a computer) with an input, process
and output.
• Information is detected by the sense organs and enters the sensory memory. If
attended to this information enters the short term memory.
• Information from the short-term memory is transferred to the long-term
memory only if that information is rehearsed (i.e. repeated). If maintenance
rehearsal (repeatation) does not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost
from short term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.
 Contemporary approaches to memory
1. Working memory
• Working memory is formally called short term memory.
• It is a memory system that holds information we are processing at the moment.
• It is a set of active temporary memory stores that actively manipulate and rehearse
information.
• It is not only like a box in which information is placed but it is a working active system that
process information.
• Baddely and Hitch proposed the WMM in 1974 as an alternative to the Multi-Store Model
of Memory (MSM), as they thought the MSM was too simplistic and didn't think that the
idea of the STM being a unitary store was correct.
• Baddely and Hitch built the WMM on the idea that if you perform two visual tasks
simultaneously then you perform them worse than if you do them separately whereas if you
perform one visual and one acoustic task simultaneously there is usually no interference.
 The Four Components of the WMM
The Central Executive:
• This is the main component of the WMM.
• Data arrives either from the senses or from the Long-Term Memory (LTM) and then
the central executive acts as a conductor and directs the attention to particular
tasks and allocates data to the different slave systems.
• The central executive has a very limited capacity and can't do too many things at
once.
The Phonological Loop:
• The Phonological Loop is subdivided into two parts - The Phonological Store and the
Articulatory Process.
• The Phonological Store, or 'inner ear', holds information in speech based form and
allows acoustically encoded items to be held for a brief period of time.
• The Articulatory Process, or 'inner voice', allows sub-vocal repetition of items stored
in the phonological store. This is a form of maintenance rehearsal.
The Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad:
• Also known as the 'inner eye', this component of the WMM is used when you have to mentally
plan a special task (like getting from one room to another).
• It stores visual and special information and is also responsible for setting up and manipulating
mental images.
• It has a limited capacity and much like the Phonological Loop it is subdivided into two parts,
the Inner Scribe and the Visual Cache (Store).
• The Visual Cache deals with the storage of information.
• The Inner Scribe acts as a rehearsal mechanism.
The Episodic Buffer:
• In 2000 Baddely added the Episodic Buffer to the components of the WMM because he
realized that the model needed a general store.
• The Phonological Loop and Visuo-Spatial sketchpad deal with processing/storage of specific
kinds of information (acoustic, visual etc.), but because the Central Executive has no memory
storage capacity the model needed a store that could deal with different types of information.
• The Episodic Buffer has a limited capacity and integrates information from all the components
of the WMM and also the Long-Term Memory.
2. Long term memory module
a. Declarative Memory
• Declarative memory is a mental data base of facts and rules.
• It is a type of long term memory containing information that is conscious and
known.
• Declarative memory is recall of factual information such as dates, words, faces,
events, and concepts.
• Remembering the first female president of republic Nepal, the rules for playing
football, and what happened in the last game of the inter BBA football, tour
program.
• Declarative memory is usually considered to be explicit because it involves
conscious, intentional remembering.
• Some psychologist use explicit memory as synonym to declarative memory,
explicit memory is a conscious recollection or retrieval of information for example
recalling the words lists.
• Declarative memory is of two types: semantic and episodic.
i. Semantic Memory
• Semantic memory is recall of general facts.
• A memory system that stores general, abstract knowledge about the world
information we can’t remember acquiring at specific time and place is semantic
memory.
• Semantic memory stay very long, highly organized and very little forgetting in rule
and meaning while using them. Such memory includes meaning of words, typical
events in everyday life and other countless facts we learned during our school
years
ii. Episodic Memory
• Episodic memory is recall of personal facts.
• It consists of memories of particular events, time and places. In other words, It is
the memory of factual information that we have acquired at specific time.
• It is a memory that allows you to go back in time and to remember specific
thoughts or experiences you had in the past.
2. Procedural Memory
• Procedural memory is also called non declarative memory.
• It is a type of long term memory that includes memory for skills, procedures,
emotional association, habit and conditioned response that may or may not be
conscious, but memories are implied because they affect conscious behavior.
• Procedural memory is usually considered implicit memory because people
don’t have to consciously remember how to perform actions or skills.
• It recalls how to do things such as swimming or driving a car. It makes people
able to do something who are not able to express in the words.
• Procedural memories make people never forgetting and it would be rare to find
someone who has lost procedural memory.
 Improving Memory
Memory is essential to all our lives. Without a memory of past we can not operate in the
present or think about the future. Without memory we could learn nothing. So we need to
improve our memory. A varieties of strategies are available to enhance human memory.
Common strategies are as follows:
• Rehearsal
Practicing material or information over and again is called rehearsal. It helps people to
remember materials . The more people rehearse information, the more likely they are to
remember that information.
• Over learning
Over learning, or continuing to practice material even after it is learned, also increases
retention.
• Distributed Practice
Learning material in short sessions over a long period is called distributed practice or the
“spacing effect.” It is a spaced learning or part learning, where learning materials are
distributed in to small units for study by which difficult and lengthy materials can be
memorized better way than cramming or massive learning
• Minimizing Interference
People remember material better if they don’t learn other, similar material right
before or soon after their effort. One way to minimize interference is to sleep
after studying material, since people can’t learn new material while sleeping.
• Deep Processing
People also remember material better if they pay attention while learning it and
think about its meaning rather than memorize the information by rote. One way
to process information deeply is to use a method called elaboration. Elaboration
involves associating the material being learned with other material.
• Chunking
It is a grouping principle, where information or materials are combined into
meaningful segments or chunks, people can remember long sequences of
numbers, such as social security numbers, cell numbers by chunking them into
two-, three-, or four-digit segments. Like 98520- 62- 123
• Narrative methods
Narrative methods involve making up a story to remember a list of words. For example,
people could remember the colors of the rainbow in the right order by making up a short
story such as this: Red Smith stood next to an orange construction cone and flagged down a
yellow cab. He told the Anu she was feeling very green and asked to be taken to a hospital.
The Anu took him to a hospital, where a nurse in a blue coat guided her to a room with indigo
walls. She smelled a violet in a vase and passed out.
• Imagery
Images are taken powerful aid to memory and provide capacity to individuals relate events
mentally to form new concept. So, a process by which all items or materials being experience
or learned are visualized is called imaginary. If a learner learns the material by developing
image, s/he can remember better. Students form mental picture about their notes and
perform better in exam.
• Method of Loci
Loci is a Latin term for place. It is mnemonic device used to visualize each of item that a
person wants to remember in different spatial location. Individuals use different location and
linked the location with information or materials so that they can recall information in better
way.
• Peg Word Method
It is a technique for memorizing lists. The peg word is similar to loci but it uses
familiar lists of items or numbers than locations as memory cue to visualize the
information or materials. For example, in case of managerial application of
emotion one is a selection, two is creativity, three is a decision making, four is
motivation, five is leadership, six is negotiation, seven is customer service, eight is
job attitude, nine is deviant behavior, and, ten is a forgiveness. They then visualize
each item on their list being associated with selection, a creativity, decision
making, and so on. Provision of speed dialing system in mobile is also example of
peg word method.
• Acronyms
Acronyms are words made out of the first letters of several words. For example,
to remember the colors of the spectrum, people often use the name ROY G. BIV,
which gives the first letters of the colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet in the right order.
• Focus Your Attention
Attention is one of the major components of memory. In order for information to
move from your short-term memory into your long-term memory, you need to
actively attend to this information. Try to study in a place free of distractions such
as television, music, and other diversions. Getting rid of distractions might be a
challenge, especially if you are surrounded by boisterous roommates or noisy
children. One thing you can do is to set aside a short period of time to be alone.
Ask your roommates to give you some space or ask your partner to take the kids
for an hour so you can focus on your work.
• Avoid Cramming
Studying materials over a number of sessions gives you the time you need to
adequately process information. Research has continuously shown that students
who study regularly remember the material far better than those who do all of
their studying in one marathon session.
• Read Out Loud
Research suggests that reading materials out loud significantly improves your memory of the
material. Educators and psychologists have also discovered that having students actually teach new
concepts to others enhances understanding and recall. You can use this approach in your own
studies by teaching new concepts and information to a friend or study partner.
• Vary Your Study Routine
Another great way to increase your recall is to occasionally change your study routine. If you're
accustomed to studying in one specific location, try moving to a different spot during your next
study session. If you study in the evening, try spending a few minutes each morning reviewing the
information you studied the previous night. By adding an element of novelty to your study sessions,
you can increase the effectiveness of your efforts and significantly improve your long-term recall.
• Get Some Sleep
Researchers have long known that sleep is important for memory and learning. Research has shown
that taking a nap after you learn something new can actually help you learn faster and remember
better. In fact, one study found that sleeping after learning something new actually leads to physical
changes in the brain. Sleep-deprived mice experienced less dendritic growth following a learning
task than well-rested mice. So the next time you're struggling to learn new information, consider
getting a good night's sleep after you study
 FORGETTING
CONCEPT
Individuals preserve countless information in long term memory and recall or
retrieve when they need to use. When they failed to recall or retrieve or bringing
out information retained in the memory that is called forgetting. So forgetting is a
passive mental process and failure to recall the past memories and experiences.
According to Munn, “Forgetting is the loss, permanent or temporary of the ability
to recall or recognize something learned earlier.”
According to Drever, “Forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience
when attempting to do so or to perform action previously learned.”
Forgetting refers to the loss of information encoded and stored in the long
term memory or failure of an individual to revive consciousness. It is failure to
retain what has been acquired.
Causes of Forgetting
Everyone forgets things; like a person’s name, where they left their keys, the ending
to a movie, or how to do math problems. However, the reason why we forget
something may differ. Psychologists have proposed several explanations to deal
about causes of forgetting. The most common cause of forgetting are given below:
1. Decay
Decay means decline or fade. It is the oldest and commonly accepted explanation
of forgetting. Decay is the loss of information in memory through its nonuse or
disuse. It explains that forgetting takes place through the passage of time due to
the fading of memory trace. Memory trace involves some sorts of physical changes
when new material is learned and simply old material fade away over a time. This
means, with the passage of time, the normal metabolic processes and chemical
reaction of the brain cause decline or decay of the memory. People might easily
remember their first day in junior high school but completely forget what they
learned in class last Tuesday. However psychologists argued that forgetting is more
complicated than simply fading or decaying of memory traces.
2. Inhibition
Inhibition means interference. It refers to the phenomenon by which information in
memory disrupts the recall of new memory. Psychologists developed interference theory
and explained that passage of time is not the failure of memory but it is the interference of
memory by other similar memories. When students learn similar theories around the same
time, they become often confused. Cognitive psychologists explained two kinds of
inhibitions i.e. retroactive inhibition and proactive inhibition.
a. Retroactive Inhibition
When the new learning interferes with the old one is called retroactive inhibition. There is
difficult in the recall of information learned earlier because of the later exposure of
different material. Sometime it is important to remember old telephone and address but
new address and new phone numbers only one that comes to mind.
b. Proactive Inhibition
When earlier information learned interferes or disrupts the recall of new information is
called proactive inhibition. Old memories that are already stored may be recalled instead
of specific, recent memory we are seeking. It can been seen in different areas such as
when we entered in the new year, we tend to write old date.
3. Memory Dysfunction
Sometime forgetting occurs due to the some problems with the brain is known as
memory dysfunction. It refers loosing memory by the dysfunctional consequences of our
brain. Memory dysfunction occurs in following two ways:
a. Alzheimer diseases
Alzheimer is a brain disease that causes memory loss and other cognitive impairment.
Alzheimer's is a disease that robs people of their memory. At first, people have a hard
time remembering recent events, though they might easily recall things that happened
years ago. People with Alzheimer's might forget their loved ones. They might forget how
to dress themselves, feed themselves, and use the toilet.
b. Amnesia
Amnesia is a loss of memory without any mental difficulties. Amnesia is a deficit in
memory caused by brain damage, disease, or psychological trauma. Amnesia can also be
caused temporarily by the use of various sedatives and hypnotic drugs. The memory can
be either wholly or partially lost due to the extent of damage that was caused. It is the
loss of memory stemming from injury, illness, drug abuse or other causes. There are two
main types of amnesia: retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia.
i. Retrograde Amnesia:
Retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a
particular date, usually the date of an accident or operation. In some cases the
memory loss can extend back decades, while in others the person may lose only a
few months of memory. It is the loss of memory of events that occurred prior to an
amnesia-inducing events. People suffering from such amnesia may be unable to
remember from specific periods in their lives.
ii. Anterograde Amnesia
Anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new information from the short-term
memory into the long-term memory. It is the inability to create new memories due to
brain damage, while long-term memories from before the event remain intact. The
brain damage can be caused by the effects of long-term alcoholism, severe
malnutrition, stroke, head trauma, encephalitis, surgery, Korsakoff Syndrome or other
trauma. People with this type of amnesia cannot remember things for long periods of
time. For example if a person meets some persons for the first time after the onset of
amnesia, s/he can’t remember that person who was familiar with him or her.