HYDRAULICS

&
RHEOLOGY
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What are HYDRAULICS?

• An operation where the drilling fluid is used to transfer

pressure from the surface to the bit, using the pressure
drop across the bit to enhance the rate of penetration!

• Part of this energy is used to clean the face of the bit!

• The pressures exerted in circulating a well can be

calculated, using Rheological Models!

• We need to know the TYPE of fluid!

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The FLUID RHEOLOGY

• Fluid Rheology affects carrying capacity,

slip velocity, and annular hydraulics.

• Fluid Rheology also affects the suspending

characteristics of the Drilling Fluid.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

RHEOLOGY - Defining some Terms


Rheology

Flow Regime

Viscosity

Shear Stress

Shear Rate

Newtonian Fluids

Non-Newtonian Fluids

Rheological Models
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is RHEOLOGY?

• Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of

matter.

• When applied to Drilling Fluids, rheology deals with the

relationship between Flow Rate and Flow Pressure and
their combined effects on the Flow Characteristics of the
fluid.

• Each of these three items is inter-related to the other.

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The TYPES of Fluids

• We are primarily concerned with just two

TYPES of fluids:

– Newtonian Fluids
– Non-Newtonian Fluids
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

NEWTONIAN Fluids

• Named after Issac Newton, the Newtonian fluid exhibits

constant ratio for the Shear Stress (the force required to
move the fluid) and the Shear rate (the rate at which the
fluid moves).
• For a NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to Shear
Rate is a constant, called the viscosity ()!
• Calculated with the formula: 
• Where:
– Shear Stress: ()
– Shear Rate: ()
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

NEWTONIAN Fluids

• Sir Isaac Newton stated that “For every action, there is an

equal and opposite re-action.”
• Therefore, if a force is applied to a fluid layer, it should
move. Every force increase should give a proportional
velocity increase.
• Most naturally occurring fluids act just that way. They are
known as NEWTONIAN Fluids.
• All fluids exhibit some internal resistance to flow. This is
known as Plastic Viscosity, or PV.
• Examples are water, glycerine, oil, etc.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Newtonian Model - Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
600 RPM Reading = 40
300 RPM Reading = 20
PV = 20; YP = 0
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

NON-NEWTONIAN Fluids!

• Any fluid that does not conform to Newtonian behaviour.

• For a NON-NEWTONIAN fluid, the ratio of Shear Stress to
Shear Rate is NOT a constant!
• MOST drilling fluids are NON-NEWTONIAN fluids.
• Any measurement of viscosity on a NON-NEWTONIAN fluid
must specify the shear rate. 
• We calculate EFFECTIVE VISCOSITY, (e), as opposed to
VISCOSITY!
• Effective viscosity is measured at shear rates that correspond
to those in the well bore.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

NON-NEWTONIAN Fluids

• A Non-Newtonian fluid is basically any fluid that does not

behave in a manner similar to a Newtonian fluid.
• Typical examples are paint, cream, printing ink and virtually
all Drilling Fluids.
• They contain solid particles of various sizes that form a
structure resistant to flow.
• When sufficient force is applied the structure “yields” and
begins to move. We call this the Yield Point.
• We call this type of fluid a BINGHAM fluid.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Other Descriptive TERMS for Fluids!

• Drilling fluids are SHEAR THINNING when they have less

viscosity at higher SHEAR RATES, than at lower.
• Some types of fluids begin to flow immediately and get
thinner as a greater shear rate is applied.
• These fluids are also known as PSUEDOPLASTIC fluids.
• Another type will not begin to flow until a THRESHOLD
shear stress is applied.
• This threshold stress is called the YIELD STRESS or
YIELD POINT.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Pseudo-Plastic” Fluids

• Most drilling fluids do not conform perfectly to the Bingham

Plastic Model.
– Most are Shear Thinning, that is, the more shear or
velocity applied, the lower their effective viscosity
becomes.
• The lower the shear rate, the thicker they behave.
– Bingham assumes a proportional straight-line increase
after the yield point is passed.
– Bingham points assume a higher shear rate than is
found in most parts of the annulus.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The RHEOLOGICAL MODELS!

• A RHEOLOGICAL MODEL is a description of the

relationship between:
– Shear Stress: ()
– Shear Rate: ()
• We will discuss those most commonly used in the drilling
fluids industry:
– Bingham Plastic Model
– Power Law Model
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is SHEAR STRESS?

• Shear Stress is defined as the force required to overcome

a fluid’s resistance to flow, divided by the area that force is
working on.
• Measured in dynes/cm2.
• Shear Stress, lbs/100 ft² = Dial Reading X 1.0678
• Basic formula is:
Shear Stress = F / A

Where: F = Force applied (dynes)

A = Surface area under stress (cm2)
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is SHEAR RATE?

• Shear rate is defined as the relative velocity of the fluid

layers, divided by their normal separation distance.
• Shear rate is expressed in reciprocal seconds (sec-1).
• Basic formula is:
Shear Rate = V / H
Where: V = Velocity (cm/sec)
H = Distance (cm)
• The Shear Rate equivalent to the rpm’s of a Rheometer
(VG Meter) is rpm’s multiplied by 1.7033.
– 600 rpm’s = 1022 sec-1.
– 300 rpm’s = 511 sec-1.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Illustrating Shear Stress/Shear Rate

Moving Plate, velocity = 1.0 cm/sec

Force

Fluid
Velocity 1 cm
Profile

Fixed Plate, velocity = 0 cm/sec

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Measurement - Marsh Funnel

• Determination of fluids
Viscous properties.
• Relies on gravity and
predetermined orifice size.
• SS/SR = Funnel Viscosity
• Measurement Reported as
– Seconds / Quart
• Predicts Trends
HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is VISCOSITY?

• Viscosity relates to the resistance to deformation exhibited

by a fluid.
• In our world, we can think of it as a relationship that exists
between the Shear Stress and the Shear Rate.
• We must not think in terms of “thick” and “thin”.
• Viscosity is calculated with the following formula:
Viscosity = Shear Stress / Shear Rate
• The Marsh funnel is NOT a measure of viscosity.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The importance of VISCOSTY!

• Hole Cleaning
• Barite Suspension
• Drilling Rate
• Circulating Pressures - E.C.D.
• Pipe Movement Pressures - Swab & Surge
• Erosion - Flow Regimes
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!

• The simplest model, and one of the most commonly

used, is the BINGHAM PLASTIC model.
• Assumes the shear stress is a linear function of shear
rate, once a specific shear stress has been exceeded.
• Expressed as:
= YP + PV ()
• Where:
– YP = yield point, lb/100 ft2
– PV = plastic viscosity, cp (centipoise)
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The BINGHAM PLASTIC Model!

• Best characterises fluids at higher shear rates.

• PV and YP are calculated from a conventional concentric
viscometer with the data taken at 600 and 300 rpm dial
readings.
– PV = 600 - 300
– YP = 300 - PV
• By multiplying the shear rate in rpm by 1.702, you can derive
the shear rate in reciprocal seconds (sec-1).
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Bingham Model - Graphically Illustrated

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
600 RPM reading = 50
300 RPM reading = 30
PV = 20; YP = 10
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

PLASTIC VISCOSITY and YIELD POINT

• PLASTIC VISCOSITY = 600 Reading - 300 Reading

– Plastic Viscosity is a measurement of the size, shape
and concentration of the solids in the mud and the
viscosity of the fluid phase.
• YIELD POINT = 300 Reading - Plastic Viscosity
– Yield Point is a measurement of the chemical and
electro-chemical charge attractions of the solids.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Plastic Viscosity - Definitions

• PV = 600 RPM Rdg - 300 RPM Rdg.

• Effected by Solids:
– Size Distribution
– Shape
– Concentration
• Effected by Fluid Phase Viscosity.
• High Shear (Equivalent to Fluid Shear Rates at Bit)
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Yield Point - Definitions

• Yield Point = 300 RPM Rdg - Plastic Viscosity.

• Indicates attraction between solids.

• Electro-Chemical in Nature (+/- charges).

• A Measure of Flocculation.

• Gives some indication of the hole cleaning ability of the

fluid, when the fluid is in motion.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Rheological MEASUREMENTS!

• You have just tested a mud sample. The

viscometer gave you the following results:
 600 = 52
 300 = 39
• What is the PV?
• What is the YP?
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The POWER LAW Model!

• The POWER LAW model describes a fluid in which the

shear stress/shear rate relationship is a straight line when
plotted on log-log graph paper.
• It more closely approximates the low shear rate behaviour
of a drilling fluid.
• The POWER LAW model is:
= K(n)
• Where:
–K = The consistency index, (lb-secn/100 ft2)
–n = The power law exponent (dimensionless)
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Power Law Model - API Method

• API uses 2 equations

– Pipe Values - Shear Rates > 511 1/sec
– Annular Values - Shear Rates < 511 1/sec
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Using Power Law Numbers

• Fluid Velocities (in feet per second) are calculated for

each hydraulic diameter in the pipe or annulus.
• K’s and n’s are applied to each section.
• Effective Viscosity (e) of the mud is calculated for each
section.
• A Critical Reynolds Number (Rec) is calculated for the
mud.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Viscosity Profiles of Fluid Models

Viscosity, cP
10,000
5,000
2,000
Newtonian
1,000
Power Law
500
Actual
200
Bingham
100
50
20
10
1 3 10 30 100 300 1,000 3,000
Shear Rate, 1/sec
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY
The concept of “n” and “K”

• The units of the Power Law Model are:

– “n”, the Power Law Index.
– “K”, the Consistency Factor
• Two regimes of flow are usually recognised:
– Medium range, found inside the pipe, the jets
and around the bit.
– Low range, found in the annulus.
– The cross-over point between the two is
generally recognised as 170 sec-1.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What about “n” and “K”?

• The rheological parameters “n” and “K” can be calculated

from any two shear-rate/shear-stress data points. This is
rarely a totally straight line.
• Normal procedure is to calculate these values at shear
rates in the drillstring and in the annulus!
– Drillstring = np and Kp
– Annulus = na and Ka
• We use the 3 rpm and 100 rpm readings for the low
shear rate.
• We use the 300 rpm and 600 rpm readings for the high
shear rate.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“n” Power Law Exponent Definition

= 3.32 log/ 600 ÷ 300 viscometer reading

“n” power law Describes the shear thinning properties of a

exponent fluid, i.e. degree of non-newtonian behavior.

High shear “A shear thinning fluid is one that thins in a high

environment
shear environment, i.e. in the drill pipe & at the
bit, and thickens in a low shear environment,
i.e. in the annulus”.

The “n” value defines the velocity profile in the

Low shear annulus.
environment
Note: PV:YP ratio also defines the velocity
profile in the annulus, i.e. PV equal to or < YP
results in a flat velocity profile – PV > YP will
sharpen the velocity profile incrementally.
Annulus
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The “n” Value

• “n” is the Power Law Exponent.

• “n” dictates the logarithmic curve followed in a Shear
Rate/Shear Stress graphical analysis.
• “n” is a function of the Shear-Thinning properties of a fluid.
– “n” values are always less than 1.000
– “n” values near 1 indicate fluids that immediately Shear-
Thin.
• A fluid with “n” near 1 is easier to force into turbulent
flow
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Calculating “n”!

• The general formula for “n” is:

log ( 2/ 1)
n = -----------------
log ( 2/  1 )
• Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings,
the equation simplifies to:
(600)
n = 3.32log --------------
(300)
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

"n" Value Relationships

• If n = 1, the fluid is Newtonian.

• If n < 1, the fluid is non-Newtonian and more shear
thinning.
• Low n values:
– Promote laminar flow
– Increase carrying capacity
• As n decreases flow profile flattens
• Most drilling fluids have n values between 0.3 - 0.5
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The “K” Value

• “K” is a consistency constant that gives a measure of

thickness compared to other fluids.
• It may be compared to Plastic Viscosity, but the
relationship is not precise.
• Actual “Effective Viscosity” must be calculated using “K”
and “n” for each specific Shear Rate.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Calculating “K”!

• The general formula for “K” is:

2
K = -------
( 2 )n
• Using the 600 and 300 rpm dial readings, the equation
simplifies to:
(300)
K = ----------
511n
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

"K" value Relationships

• K defines viscosity at a low shear rate

– approximately 1 1/sec
• Higher K generally improves hole cleaning
• Higher K increases system pressure loss
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

OTHER Models!
• HERSCHEL-BUCKLEY (Modified Power Law)
Best fit to Drilling Fluids
YP = 3
n = (3.32) log [( 300-YP ) / ( 300-YP )]
K = 300 / 511n
• CASSON
– Very accurate at low shear rates, but complicated and difficult to
use.
• ROBERTSON-STIFF
The best model for HPHT Wells
– A three parameter model that is also difficult to use. Very
accurate in many cases.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Graph of Actual Readings vs. Bingham and Power Law Models

Shear Stress, lb/100 ft²

40

30

20

10 Bingham Actual Power Law Power Law

Model Values Pipe Annulus

0
0 200 400 600 800 1,000 1,200
Shear Rate, 1/sec
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Power Law Model Weakness

• Has no yield stress.

– May be inaccurate at shear rates <1
• Need two sets of values for accuracy
– Pipe
– Annular
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The Yz Factor

• In recent years a trend has developed where the Yz factor

is applied as an indicator of the LOW END rheology of a
drilling fluid.
• It is calculated with the following formula:
Yz Factor = (2 * FANN 3) - FANN 6
• The LOW END rheology has only a moderate influence on
hole cleaning.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Defining the FLOW REGIME!

• What is a “Flow Regime”?

– Essentially the nature of the fluid flow.
• A Flow Regime can be classed in several ways:
– Plug Flow
– Laminar Flow
– Transitional Flow
– Turbulent Flow
• What do these terms mean?
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is PLUG FLOW?

• The condition where the fluid moves like a solid.

• Generally attributed to very low flow rates, with high
viscosities and/or high solids concentrations .

Wellbore Wall Drillpipe Wall

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is LAMINAR FLOW?

• Laminar Flow is associated with low flow rates and an
orderly pattern of flow.
• The flow rate/flow pressure relationship is governed by
the viscous properties of the fluid.

Wellbore Wall Drillpipe Wall

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is TURBULENT FLOW?

• Characterised by chaotic, random flow patterns.
• Associated with high fluid velocities.
• The change from Transitional to Turbulent is governed
by a dimensionless number, called the Reynold’s
Number.

Wellbore Wall Drillpipe Wall

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is TRANSITIONAL FLOW?

• Transitional Flow is a theoretical state where the

Flow Regime is in Transition from Laminar Flow to
Turbulent Flow.
• This transition occurs at some Critical Velocity.
• If the velocity is reduced slightly, the fluid returns
to Laminar flow.
• Conversely, if the velocity is increased, turbulence
is achieved.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Example Flow Profiles

Velocity Profile in the annulus

Fluid velocity diminishes to almost
drill pipe borehole wall zero at the face of the borehole and
the drill pipe due to frictional drag .
n = 0.7

n = 0.5 Vertical well bore

n = 0.3

Horizontal well bore

Maximum velocity
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is the CRITICAL VELOCITY?

• The Critical Velocity is that velocity when the

movement of a fluid changes from:
– Laminar to Transitional to Turbulent
• It is largely governed by the ratio of the fluid’s
internal forces to it’s viscous forces.
• This ratio is known commonly as the Reynold’s
Number.
• We must know the Reynold’s Number to determine
the Critical Velocity.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

What is the REYNOLDS NUMBER?

• It is the ratio of the fluid’s internal forces to it’s viscous

forces.
• The Reynold’s Number is based on the following
formula:
Nre = ( Dfc * Va * Dm ) / Fv

Where: Dfc = Dimensions of the flow

channel
Va = Average flow velocity
Dm = Density of the fluid
Fv = Fluid viscosity
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Gel Strength - Definition

• Attraction between solids under static conditions.

• Closely related to Yield Point.
• Types:
– Fragile or Flat
– Progressive or Elevated
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Gel Strength - Importance

• An Indication of Low Shear Rate Rheological Properties.

• Too low may cause:
– Settling Barite and/or Cuttings
– Cutting Beds Build-up
• Too high may cause:
– Pressure Surges
– Swabbing
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Fragile” Gel Strength

• A Gel Strength which increases only slightly after 10

minutes, even if the ten second gel is high.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Fragile” Gel Strength

• Generally Desirable
• Lower
– Pump Pressures
– Swab/Surge Pressures
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Progressive” Gel Strength

• A Gel Strength which increases significantly after 10

minutes, even if the ten second gel is low.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Progressive” Gel Strength

• May be an indication of:

– Concentration of Reactive Solids Too High
– Solids Crowding
– Insufficient Deflocculation
– Carbonate Contamination
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

“Fragile” and “Progressive” Gel Strength

Gel Strength (Lb/100 Sq. Ft.)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time In Minutes

Progressive Gel Fragile Gel

 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Hydraulics Analysis

• KMC Oiltools is starting to use Drillbench – PRESMOD

simulation program

• The objective of using this program is to assess the

effects of the viscosity of any drilling fluid on certain
critical drilling parameters at any given depth, formation
types, temperature and pressure.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

WHAT DO WE MEAN BY “HYDRAULICS”?

• Mechanical and Flow properties of Fluids as

applied to practical Mud Engineering
• Otherwise referred to as “Fluid Mechanics”
• Drilling Fluid is the “Blood” of the Drilling Operation
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

WHY EFFECTIVE HYDRAULICS?

• Hole Cleaning
• Hydrostatic Pressure Optimisation
– Wellbore Stability
– Wellbore Control
• Equivalent Circulating Densities (ECD)
• Surge and Swab Control whilst Tripping
• Limitation of Pump Capacity
• Optimisation of Drilling Operation
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

THE CIRCULATING SYSTEM!

Mud Pits

Mud Pumps

Casing String

Drillpipe

Open hole

Annulus

MWD

Downhole Motor

Drill bit
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

CIRCULATING PRESSURE LOSSES!

• Surface Equipment:
– From Mud Pump to Top of Drillpipe
– Varies from Rig to Rig - typically 100 psi
• Drillstring:
• Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA):
– MWD tools
– Downhole Motors
• Drill Bit:
– Nozzle number and size
• Annulus:
– Open hole
– Casing
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

CIRCULATING SYSTEM - Shear Rate Ranges!

Settling Barite Particle Drill Pipe Drill Collars

Annulus Bit
H.C.*

0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

SHEAR RATE (1/sec)

*H.C = Hydroclones
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Primary Design Criteria

• Pore Pressure < Hydrostatic Pressure/ECD <

Fracture Pressure

Fracture Pressure Gradient

Depth

Pore Pressure Gradient

Mud Weight

Pressure or Equivalent Mud Weight

 Poor Design will likely lead to;

 Wellbore Control
 Lost Circulation
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Hydraulics Design Criteria

Casing / Completion Operations

Pump Capacity Tripping Speed

Pore Pressure Optimum

Design Maximum ROP
Fracture Pressure

Hole Geometry / Cleaning Bit Hydraulics

BHA Design
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Key Variables in Hydraulics

• Pump Rate
– High
• Good Hole Cleaning
– Too High
• Excessive Pump Pressure, High ECD, Annular
Turbulence
• Density
– High
• Wellbore Stability and Control
– Too high
• Low ROP, Lost Circulation, Differential Sticking
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Key Variables in Hydraulics

• Rheology
– High
• Good hole Cleaning, No Barite Sag
– Too High
• Low ROP, High ECD, High Pump Pressure, Inefficien
Solids Removal
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Design

• Mud Selection
– Environment
– Lithology
– Cost
• Modify Rheology and Hydraulics to meet Drilling
Requirements
– Geometry
• Modify Drilling Parameters to meet needs of Hydraulics
• Tools
– Accurate Dynamic Hydraulics Software
– Hole Cleaning Software
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Why Calculate Pressure Losses and Rheology?

• Determine the ECD (Equivalent Circulating Density) of a

drilling fluid.
• Assess the effects of fluid changes on hydraulic performance
• Optimise hydraulics for enhanced drilling performance.
• Ensure good hole cleaning.
• Preventing erosion.
• Prevent borehole instability.
• Prevent losses due to surge pressures.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

The Steps!

• Draw the wellbore geometry.

• Calculate the total annular pressure drop.
• Calculate the ECD.
• Calculate the Critical Flow Velocity and Flow Rate
around the drill collars.
• Calculate surge and swab pressures.
• Calculate cuttings transport efficiency.
• Calculate the pressure drop in the drillstring.
• Optimise bit hydraulics.
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Hole Information Given!

• Pump Output (gpm) = 800

• ID Hole (in) = 12.25
• Depth Hole (feet) = 12000
• ID Casing (in) = 12.347
• Depth Casing (feet) = 5000
• OD Drillpipe (in) = 5.000
• ID Drillpipe (in) = 4.276
• Length Drillpipe (feet) = 10500
• OD Drill Collar (in) = 9.500
• ID Drill Collar (in) = 3.000
• Length Drill Collar (ft) = 1500
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Mud Information Given!

• Mud Weight (ppg) = 12.5 ppg

• VG Meter: 3 rpm = 10
• VG Meter: 300 rpm = 28
• VG Meter: 600 rpm = 50
 HYDRAULICS & RHEOLOGY

Working an Example!

• Using the supplied formulae, and the

information for the well, work out the ECD!