Frequently

Asked
Questions on
Special
Education
DIANA KYTH P. CONTI, LPT
1. What is special education?
The term special education and its related concepts are based on the
law in the United States (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act)
(Friend, 2006, pp. 4-5).
A.) The term special education means specially designed instruction,
at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with
disability, including—

1. instruction conducted in the classroom, in the home, in hospitals

and institutions, and in other settings; and

2. instruction in physical education.

B.) Two components of the definition of special education are
related services and supplementary aids and services.

1.Related services—The term means transportation and such

developmental, corrective, and other supportive services including
speech/language pathology and audiology services, interpreting
services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy,
social work services and recreation.
It also includes school nurse services designed to enable a child with
a disability to receive free public education, counseling services,
including rehabilitation counselling; orientation and mobility services;
and medical services.
2. Supplementary aids and services—The term means
aids, services, and other supports that are provided in
regular education classes or other education related
settings to enable children with disabilities to be
educated with nondisabled children to the maximum
extent appropriate.... (IDEA, 2004.)
 Heward (2009, p. 36) suggests looking at
the who, what, how and where of special
education teaching to understand what
makes special education. "special."
2. What is special about
special education?
a. Who: Exceptional children or children
with special needs, as well as, certified
general education and special
education teachers

b. What: General education curriculum or

combination of general and functional
curriculum; the use of Individualized
Educational Plan as guide for each
child
 c. How: Its use of
specialized, or adapted,
materials and methods
2. What is special about
special education?
d. Where: General
education classroom or
separate classrooms,
residential schools, or
resource room
3. What are the defining features of special education?

Heward (2009, p. 42) suggests six defining features of special

education. This implies that professionals trained in special education are
able to demonstrate knowledge and skills in these areas.

a. individually planned instruction

b. intensive instruction
c. research-based methods
d. specialized instruction
e. goal-directed
f. guided by student performance
Psychology of
Exceptional
Children
1.) How are the terms impairment, disability and
handicap defined? Are the terms synonymous?
Heward (2009, p. 10) differentiates the three terms:
A. Impairment refers to the loss or reduced function of a
particular body part or organ (e.g., a missing limb).
B. Disability exists when an impairment limits a person's ability
to perform certain tasks (e.g., see, walk, hear).
C. Handicap refers to a disadvantage that a person with either a
disability or an impairment encounters. A person who uses a
wheelchair may be handicapped in buildings that does not
have access points for persons with disability, but may not be
handicapped in a classroom that provides support.
2.) Who are "exceptional children" or
children with "special learning needs"?
1. The World Bank (1994) defines
children with special needs as:
… all those children who permanently or
temporarily during their school careers
have need of special education services
on the part of the teacher, the institution
and/or the system by dint of their
physical, mental or multiple impairment
or emotional conditions or for reasons of
situational disadvantage
2. Other terms synonymously used are: exceptional children, children
with special learning needs (SLN), pupils with special educational needs
(SEN, used in Great Britain), children with handicapping conditions, or
children with disabilities.

People first policy

Amendments to Public Law 94-142 in 1990 (Public Law 101-476)

included a change in nomenclature. All references to handicapped
children were changed to children with disabilities (Dettmer, Thurston, &
Dyck, 1993, p. 7).

The term exceptional children, however, includes also gifted children.

Special education professionals in the Philippines show preference for
this term because it includes children who are gifted.
3.) What are the types of disabilities served
by Individuals with Disabilities Education
Act (IDEA)?
a. autism
b. communication disorders
c. deaf-blindness
d. hearing impairments
e. mental retardation
f. multiple disabilities
g. orthopedic impairments
h. other health impairments
I. Serious emotional disturbance
j. specific learning disabilities
k. traumatic brain injury
l. visual impairments
4.) What other classification schemes are used to describe children with
disabilities? Why are these terms used instead of the disability categories?
a. Children-at-risk - refers to children who, although not currently identified as
having a disability, are considered to have greater-than-usual chance of
developing one.
The term is usually used for:
1. infants and preschoolers who, because of biological conditions, events surrounding
their births, or characteristics of their home environments, may be expected to
experience developmental problems at a later time. The presence of these risk factors
alone does not constitute disability (Friend, 2006, p. 21);
2. students who are experiencing significant learning or behavioral problems in the
general education classroom and are therefore at risk for failure or of being identified
for special education services (Heward, p. 10; p. 45); and
3. students who exhibit a wide range of educational problems, including the failure to
respond positively to instruction in basic academic skills, manifestation of unacceptable
social behavior in school, and a limited repertoire of experiences that are necessary for
formal education (Pierce, 1994, p. 37).
b. Slow learners -belong to children-at-risk group. They are not eligible
for special education but their educational progress is slow. They do
not have mental retardation nor learning disabilities but they also
need assistance in the form of remedial instruction or tutorial (Friend,
2000, p. 20).

c. Cross-categorical - this approach to the study of characteristics of

exceptional children pays more attention to their learning needs than
to the labels.

1. Although some strategies are designed specifically for a particular

group of students, most of the teaching strategies can be adapted for
most students.

2. By adopting a cross-categorical approach to planning instruction, many

more service options are available for helping students succeed (Friend,
2000, P . 19).
d. Twice exceptional — This term refers to students with disabilities
who are also gifted; also referred to as students with dual
exceptionalities (Friend, 2006, p. 20).

e. Severe disabilities — There are different ways of defining severe

disabilities.

1. Based on IQ scores:

 individuals who obtain IQ scores of 35 and below,

 or individuals who score in the moderate level of mental
retardation

2. Students with significant disabilities in intellectual, physical, and/or

social functioning, students with multiple disabilities, deaf-blindness,
severe mental retardation, severe emotional disturbance, and severe
health impairments.
3. Functional definitions:

 By Justen (1976, p. 5):

"Those individuals age 21 and younger who are
functioning at a general developmental level of half or less than
the level which would be expected on the basis of
chronological age" (Cited by Heward, 2009, p. 454).

 Basic skills definition:

... a student with severe disabilities, regardless of age, is
one who needs instruction in basic skills (Heward, 2009, p.
454).
f. Profound disabilities — The term profound disabilities refers
to:

1. profound developmental disabilities in all five of the

following behavioral content areas: cognition,
communication, social skills development, motor- mobility,
and activities of daily living;
2. a continuous need for monitoring and observation; and
3. a developmental ceiling of 2 years of age for each area of
functioning.
An individual functioning above 2 years of age or more does not
have profound disabilities (Sternberg, 1994 cited by Heward, p.
455).
g. High-incidence disabilities
- This term refers to a group of disabilities that are most
common: learning disabilities, speech or language
impairments, mild mental retardation, and serious
emotional disturbance (Friend, 2000, p. 19).
h. Low-incidence disabilities
- This term refers to disabilities that are rare. These are
severe mental retardation, multiple disabilities, hearing
impairments, orthopedic impairments, other health
impairments, visual impairments, deaf-blindness,
autism, and traumatic brain injury (Friend, 2000, p. 19).
5. Why are classification systems used for
individuals with disabilities important to the
study of exceptionality?
Classification systems lead directly to definition,
which in turn provide the criteria for identification
(Fletcher, Francis, Rourke, Shaywitz, & Shaywitz in
Lyon, Gray, Kavanaghh, & Krasnegor, 1993, p. 38)
6. What are the criteria for defining the different categories of
exceptionalities?
a. Autism
1. What are the central features of autism?
The National Research Council (2001, pp. 11-12) describes the features of autism:
 Developmental disorder of neurobiological origin defined on the basis of
behavioral and developmental features
 Present at birth or very early in development that affects essential human
behaviors such as social interaction, the ability to communicate ideas and
feelings, imagination, and the establishment of relationships with others
 It has life-long effects on how children learn to be social beings, to take care of
themselves, and to participate in the community
2. What is autism spectrum disorder?
 Autism is best characterized as a spectrum of
disorders (Autism Spectrum Disorder or ASD) that
vary in severity of symptoms, age of onset, and
associations with other disorders
 There is no single behavior that is always typical of
autism and no behavior that would automatically
exclude an individual child from a diagnosis of
autism, even though there are strong and consistent
commonalities, especially in social deficits.
3. What is Pervasive Developmental Disorder
(PDD)?
The concept of pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) is an
umbrella term for autism and other disorders such as Asperger's
disorder, PDD-NOS (Not Otherwise Specified) and childhood
disintegrative disorder.
4. What is the central and defining behavioral
feature ofASD?
Difficulty engaging in reciprocal social interactions is the central
and defining behavioral feature of ASD
(Boyd, Conroy, Asmus, McKenny, & Mancil, 2008, p. 186).
5. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual
of Mental Disorders IV, what criteria in terms of
qualitative impairment in communication are required
for a diagnosis of autism?
 Spoken language is either delayed or lacking
 Marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a
conversation with others
 Stereotyped and repetitive use of language or
idiosyncratic language
 Lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play
appropriate to age (p. 58)
6. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders-IV, what criteria in terms of patterns of
behavior are required for a diagnosis of autism?
• Stereotyped or restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal
either in intensity or focus
• Inflexible adherence to specific, non-functional routines or
rituals
• Stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms
• Persistent preoccupation with parts of objects (p. 58)
b. Communication Disorders
1. When is communication considered disordered?
Communication is considered a disorder when speech and language differ
markedly from that of others of the same age in the following aspects
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000, p. 73):
 Speech disorders: To be considered disordered, the student's speech should
be significantly different from that of others of the same age, gender, or
cultural background.
 Voice: volume, pitch, quality of voice
 Articulation: difficulty pronouncing words—omissions, additions,
distortions, and substitutions; can be treated with intensive speech therapy
 Fluency: (interruptions in the natural flow or rhythm of speech)
* Stuttering (involuntary repetition, prolongation, or blockage of a word or part
of a word; usually starts before age 5 but only after they have begun to speak)
2. What are the signs of language problems?
Phonology: Difficulty of students in blending and segmenting
sounds
Morphology: Difficulty with using correct plural forms or using
correct verb tenses
Syntax: Difficulty with grammar usage
Pragmatics: Difficulty using language in the context of social
situations
3. What is aphasia?
Aphasia is often caused by brain injuries; the individual
experiences difficulty remembering words she knew
before the injury. Aphasia may be mild or severe.
 Expressive aphasia: difficulty in speaking; may rely
on alternative and augmentative communication
devices as supplement to communication if some
speech is available; or total reliance if speech is too
severe
 Receptive aphasia: difficulty comprehending spoken
words; less common
c. Why is deaf-blindness a different category?
Deaf-blindness is a separate category because of the
unique learning needs and specialized services required
(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2000, p. 9).
Deaf-blinds have severe communication and other
developmental and educational needs. They cannot be
accommodated in special education solely for children
with deafness or blindness (Friend, 2006, pp. 532-533).
The most famous person who was deaf-blind was Helen
Keller.
d. What does the description
"developmentally delayed" mean?
The term developmental delay is a
general term for children who receive
special education services, either in
special education classes or general
education classes, with support.
e. What are the criteria for defining behavioral disorder?
1. The National Coalition on Mental Health and Special
Education defines behavioral disorder as behavioral or
emotional responses so different from appropriate age, culture,
or ethnic norms that they adversely affect educational
performance. Such a disability:
 is more than temporary, expected response to stressful
events
 is consistently exhibited in two different settings
 is unresponsive to direct intervention in general education
(Cited in Friend, 2006, p. 246).
2. The Federal definition of
emotional (not behavioral)
disturbance was criticized because
the five criteria of the definition are
not supported by research and its
exclusion of children with conduct
disorders is not appropriate (Friend,
2006, p. 245).
3. Are all behavior problems considered disorders?
The following statements refer to behavior disorders and are helpful
to teachers as they identify, assess, and place children labeled as
having behavior disorders (Obiakor, 1999, p. 49).
• A problem behavior is not always a disordered behavior.
• A behavior is considered a disorder when (a) it departs from
acceptable standards considering age, culture, situation,
circumstance, and time; (b) its frequency is well-documented; and
(c) its duration is well-documented. (Italia in the original)
• Even when a behavior is disordered, the person exhibiting it is not
disordered or disturbed.
4. What other behavior disorders belong to "clinically
derived" classification system?
The following conditions which educators would consider as falling
under the category of emotional and behavioral disorders would be
referred to as mental disorders from the medical point of view:
anxiety disorders, disruptive behavior disorders (attention deficit-
hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder or ODD, and
conduct disorder), eating disorders, mood disorders, and tic
disorders (Friend, 2006, p. 247; Gargiulo, 2003, pp. 269-270).
5. What behavior disorders are included under
"statistically-derived" classification system?
The best known dimensions of problem behaviors are
those reported by Quay and Peterson:
conduct disorder, socialized aggression, attention
problems/immaturity, anxiety/withdrawal,
psychotic behavior, and motor tension excess (cited
in Gargiulo, 2003, p. 271)
f. Giftedness
1. What is the common definition of giftedness?
The most commonly used definition of giftedness is the one by Sydney
Marland. This definition of gifted and talented students was included in the
1972 report to Congress titled Education of the Gifted by the U.S.
Commissioner of Education Sydney Marland. The definition states:
...the term "gifted and talented children” means children, and whenever
applicable, youth, who are identified at the preschool, elementary, or
secondary level as possessing demonstrated or potential high performance
capabilities in areas such as intellectual, creative, specific academic, or
leadership ability or in the performing and visual arts and who by reason
thereof require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school...
gifted and talented will encompass a minimum of 3 to 5 percent of the
school population (cited by Heward, 2009, p. 493).
2. When are children considered gifted?
Children could be considered gifted when they
demonstrate outstanding abilities in the following
areas:
 general intellectual ability
 specific academic aptitude
 creative or productive thinking
 leadership ability
 visual and performing arts
 psychomotor ability
3. Are the words "gifted" and "talented" used interchangeably?
A shift from using the term gifted to using the term talented appeared
in the Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Students Act of 1988,
reauthorized in 1994.
The second national report on gifted education, National Excellence: A
Case for Developing America's Talent uses the term talent rather than
gifted.
Friend (2006, p. 576) differentiates the two terms:
 Giftedness is evidence of advanced development across intellectual
areas, within a specific or arts-related area, or unusual
organizational power to bring about desired results.
 Talent is extraordinary ability in a specific area; the term is used
interchangeably with giftedness.
4. How is "giftedness" conceptualized?
 In Renzulli's three-ring model of giftedness, three related dimensions are identified:
above average ability, task commitment or motivation, and creativity.
 Using multiple intelligences, Gardner reconceptualized intelligence from the traditional
notion to one that emphasizes its multidimensional nature. To Gardner, a gifted child
may excel in any one of these areas: verbal/ linguistic, logical/mathematical,
visual/spatial, bodily/kinaesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist
(Friend, 2006, pp. 574-577).
 Sternberg and Zhang proposed a conceptual theory, the pentagonal implicit theory.
'This model encompasses five criteria that a person must meet in order to be
considered gifted:
• excellence
• rarity
• productivity
• demonstrability, and
• value (cited in Turnbull, Turnbull, Shank, & Smith (2004, pp. 196f.).
5. Is giftedness "domain-specific"?
Domain-specific giftedness does not imply
that giftedness operates in isolation. Some
people may exhibit giftedness in more than
one area, whereas others may excel in one
area only (Turnbull et al., 2004, p. 197).
g. Mental retardation (MR)
1. What are the criteria used in defining mental retardation?
There are three defining criteria for MR. These are:
 Significant subaverage intellectual functioning refers to a score of
> 2 standard deviations below the mean on a standardized
intelligence test.
 An individual must be well below average in both intellectual
functioning and adaptive behavior.
 The deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior
must occur during the developmental period to distinguish
mental retardation from other disabilities (Heward, 2009, p. 132).
2. How is deficient adaptive functioning determined?
The following practices have been used to determine deficient adaptive
functioning (Bergeron, Floyd, & Shands, 2008):
 The use of global adaptive behavior composite scores
 use of scores reflecting adaptive domains
 The use of scores reflecting adaptive behavior skill areas (e.g., self-care, and
community participation) (Bergeron et al., 2008, p. '124) or the subdomains in
the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Skills: receptive, expressive and written
language; daily living skills for personal, domestic, and community life;
interpersonal relationships, play and leisure time, coping skills; and gross and
fine motor skills.)
 Adaptive functioning must be measured in multiple settings (Bergeron
etal.,2008, p.129)
3. Should we rely on IQ to determine intellectual
deficit?
There is historical reliance on IQs in MR definition.
However, over-reliance on a single score may not
provide the information about the individual's
specific cognitive abilities. Thus, part scores in an
intelligence test may be used in place of the IQ in the
diagnosis of MR especially when there is reason to
doubt the validity of the IQ (Bergeron et al., 2008,
124).
4. What other terms are used to refer to mental
retardation?
Other terms used are mental disability, intellectual
disability, cognitive delay, cognitive disability,
cognitive impairment, cognitively impaired,
developmental cognitive disability, intellectual
impairment, learning impairment/ delay in learning,
mental handicap, mentally disabled, mentally
handicapped, and significant limited intellectual
capacity (Bergeron et al., 2008, p, 125).
5. How are persons with mental retardation classified?
The American Association of Mental Retardation classified MR
according to degree of intellectual impairment based on standardized
intelligence test
6. What is the new proposed term for mental retardation and
how is mental retardation defined using this new term?
In 2002, the definition of mental retardation was changed to
intellectual disability:
 Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by
significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and in
adaptive behavior as expressed in conceptual, social, and
practical adaptive skills. This disability originates before age
18 (Heward, 2009, p. 133 citing Luckasson et al., 2002).
 The definition has direct implications to the level of supports needed
by children with intellectual disabilities. The definitions of intensities of
support for individuals with intellectual disability are shown below
(Heward, 2009, p. 134):
The arguments or reasons for the change of terminology from mental
retardation to intellectual disability are:
 The largest segment of individuals with mental retardation are
those with mild intellectual disability.
 The diagnosis of mental retardation is applied only to those who are
severely and profoundly mentally retarded and perhaps few of
those with moderate retardation. This constitute a very small
portion of the population of individuals with intellectual disability.
 The- term mental retardation has outlived its usefulness and is an
“inappropriate, misleading, and often harmful term that has been
used to refer to a very heterogeneous group of people who have
greater differences among them than similarities" (Heward, 2009, p.
135).
h. Multiple disabilities
1. What is meant by multiple disabilities?
Multiple disabilities include concomitant
impairments such as the following:
 mental retardation-hearing impairment
 mental retardation-blindness
 mental retardation-orthopedic impairment
2. In terms of placement, what does multiple
disabilities imply?
The presence of a combination of
impairments causes severe educational needs
that individuals with this condition cannot be
accommodated in special programs solely for
one of the impairments.
 3. Is deaf-blindness a multiple
disabilities?
Multiple disabilities does not
include deaf-blindness (Public Law
105-1% cited by Gargiulo, 2003, p.
539)
i. Orthopedic impairment

This refers to severe impairments caused by:

1. congenital anomaly (e.g., clubfoot)

2. disease (e.g., poliomyelitis, bone tuberculosis)
3. other causes (e.g., cerebral palsy, amputations,
fractures, burns that cause contractures) (Public
Law 105-17, cited by Gargiuolo, p. 539)
j. Other health impairment
This term refers to bodily condition characterized by having limited
strength, vitality, or alertness that affects a child's educational performance
due to chronic or acute health problems. These health problems are:

 asthma
 attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
 diabetes
 epilepsy
 a heart condition
 hemophilia
 lead poisoning
 leukemia
 nephritis
 rheumatic fever
 sickle cell anemia (Gargiulo, 2003, p. 539)
Variables affecting the impact of physical and health
impairments are severity, visibility, and age of onset (Heward,
2009, p. 430).
k. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of

Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) offers this
criteria for diagnosing ADHD: "Persistent
pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-
impulsivity that is more frequent and severe
than is typically observed in individuals at a
comparable level of development."
L. Traumatic brain injury
 Total or partial functional disability or psychosocial
impairment caused by injury in the brain caused by an
external physical force
 Open or closed head injuries resulting in impairments in
one or more areas: cognition, language, memory,
attention, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment,
problem-solving, sensory, perceptual, and motor abilities,
psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information
processing, and speech
 Does not apply to congenital or degenerative brain
injuries, nor to brain injuries induced by birth trauma
(Gargiulo, p. 539)
m. Specific learning disability (LD)
1. The term implies that the disorder/s exist
in the person, not in the environment, and
not due to poor instruction, poverty, or
disability.
2. Discrepancy between intelligence (usually
average or higher intelligence) and
achievement
3. Two classification schemes of learning disabilities
are (Kirk, Gall%e Anastasiow, 1997, pp. 238-247):
Neuropsychological/developmental learning
disabilities—
 perceptual motor problems
 visual processing deficits
 auditory processing deficits
 memory disorders
 attentional deficits and hyperactivity
Academic/achievement LDs—

 language and reading disorders

 dyslexia
 writing disorders
 spelling disorders
 mathematics disorders
 deficits in executive function or cognitive
strategies
Thank
you