St.

Paul University Philippines

Graduate School

A Course Presentation in
MCC201 - Methods of Research
Dr. Pilar Acorda
Course Content
I. Nature and Functions of Research
II. Research Problems and Objectives
III. Review of Related Literature and Studies
IV. Research Designs
V. Sampling Techniques
VI. Research Instruments and Data Collection
VII. Data Processing and Tabulation
VIII. Data Analysis and Interpretation
IX. Action Research Design
X. Writing the (Action) Research Proposal
XI. Presentation and Defense
Course Requirements
1. Regular Attendance/Participation
2. Critical Analysis of Conducted Researches plus
Questions for discussion (relevance of related
literature and studies
cited, congruency of the objectives/statement of the
problem with the instrument used,
appropriateness of design used, sampling method and
statistical treatment)
3. Formulation and preparation of research projects in line
with the field of specialization following the principles
and suggested guidelines
4. Presentation of Generated Research Projects/Proposal
5. Written Final Examination
Nature and Functions of
Research
 What is research?
 Derived from the French word “CERCHIER” which
means to seek or search

 a process of arriving at dependable solutions to a problem

through a systematic collection, analysis, evaluation,
interpretation and synthesis of data or information

 searching for a theory, for testing theory or for solving a

problem.
 What is research?
 a process of identifying possible
solutions to the complex problems of
man.

 diligent and systematic inquiry or

investigation into a subject in order to
discover facts or principles
-Macquarie Dictionary
 What is research?

 It is the whole complex of activities

that results in the generation of new
knowledge and/or technology,
which may or may not have an
immediate impact on human lives
(Acs, 2005)
 What is research?

• Research is a process of identifying

possible solutions to the complex
problems of man. It is the ultimate
remedy when he is not capable of
rationalizing the nature, causes and
effects of his problems in a short
span of time
 What is research?
• A purposive, systematic and
scientific process of gathering,
analyzing, classifying, organizing,
presenting, and interpreting data for
the solution of a problem, for
prediction, for invention, for the
discovery of truth, or for the
expansion or verification of existing
knowledge, all for the preservation
of human life.
ACCORDING TO GOOD AND SCATES, research
using the scientific method entails the following:

1. Formulation and development of the problem for

investigation

2. Selection and use of one or more appropriate methods of

gathering evidence, together with the analysis and
interpretation of data

3. Reporting and the implementation of the findings

 ACCORDING TO KERLINGER

 scientific research is systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of
hypothetical propositions about the presumed
relations among natural phenomena.
 In Higher Education. . .

Research is one of its

most important functions.
It is responsible for conducting
quality research to develop the future manpower
resources of the country.
 What Law Mandates on CHED

1. Formulate and recommend development plans, policies,

priorities and programs on research
2. Direct or re-direct purposive research on institutions of
higher learning to meet the needs of agro-
industrialization and development.
3. Develop criteria for allocating resources such as
research and program development grants, and
4. Identify, support and develop potential centers of
excellence in program areas needed for the development
of world-class scholarship, nation-building and national
development.
 Primary Purpose of Research

To gather information and make a sound decision or

judgment or develop new knowledge

-Berg & Latin-

 Common misconceptions:

 Dull
 Theoretical
 Impractical
 Performed by highly intellectual individuals
 Must wear a white lab coat
Factors for Effective Research

Money Materials

Research

Men
The Research
Process
 Research Process
1. Identification of the Research Problem
2. Formulation of the research methodology/preparation of
the research design
3. Gathering of data
4. Analysis and interpretation of data
5. Writing of the research report
6. Publication/dissemination of research results
 Characteristics of the Research Process

1. It is systematic.
2. It is logical.
3. It is data – based.
4. It involves a process of delimitations.
5. It is replicable.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
ACCORDING TO BEST

1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.

2. Research is based upon observable experience or empirical
evidence.
3. Research demands accurate observation and description.
4. Research involves the gathering of data from first hand sources.
5. Research requires expertise.
6. Research strives to be objective and logical.
7. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
8. Research is characterized by patient and unhurried activity.
9. Research is carefully reported and recorded.
 WHAT RESEARCH IS NOT

1. It is not an argument. It does not denounce or defend, it

just clarifies.
2. It is not a mere compilation of facts, opinions or ideas.
3. It is not a summary of a single work no matter how
authoritative.
4. It is not a half – hazard grouping of ideas full of gaps and
missing links thrown together to beat a deadline.
5. It is not a collection of footnotes and bibliographies.
 Suggested Pattern of A Research Study

1. Identification of the 4. Collection of data 6. Summarizing results

research problem (Refining/
Reformulating of
2. Formulation of
hypothesis as 7. Drawing conclusions/
hypothesis (identification
needed) generalizations
of necessary data)
5. Analysis of gathered
3. Review of related
data
literature and studies

Related Theory
- expanded, revised,
new theory
- Existing body of
knowledge
- New knowledge
- Relatedness to the review
of literature
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A RESEARCHER

1. patient
2. determined
3. honest
4. fair and just
5. intellectually curious
6. prudent
7. objective and open – minded
8. healthily skeptical
9. accurate and resourceful
10. intellectually honest
 SELECTION OF THE PROBLEM

Guide Questions:
1. Is the subject worth investigating?
2. Can the desired inquiry be put through?
3. Can I do the job?
4. Is it a job I want to tackle?
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELECTING A
PROBLEM

1. novelty of the problem

2. students’ interest in the problem
3. practical value of the research work
4. special qualifications to attack the problem
5. availability of data on the problem
6. cost of investigating the problem
7. time which the investigation of the problem will
probably require
SHARPENING SKILLS FOR DISCOVERING AND
IDENTIFYING A PROBLEM

1. reading a lot of literature in your field of concentration and being

critical of what you read
2. attending professional lectures
3. being close observant of situations and happenings around you
4. thinking out the possibility of research for most topics or lessons
taken in content courses
5. attending research colloquiums or seminars
6. conducting mini – researches and noting the obtained absence
closely.
7. compiling researches with special emphasis on content and
methodology
8. visiting various libraries for possible discovery of researchable
topics
9. subscribing to journals in your field and in research
10. building - up a library of materials in your field
 SOURCES OF PROBLEMS

1. actual problems encountered

2. technological changes and curricular developments
3. consultation with experts
4. specialization
5. analysis of an area of knowledge
6. consideration of existing practices and needs
7. repetition or extensions of investigations
8. off – shoots of studies underway
 RULES IN DETERMINING WHETHER THE PROBLEM
CHOSEN HAS BEEN WELL – DEFINED

1. Be sure that the topic is neither too vague nor too broad
in scope.
2. State the problem with a question that requires a definite
answer.
3. Carefully state the limits of the problem, eliminating all
aspects and factors which will not be considered in the
study.
4. Define any special term that must be used in the
statement of the problem.
Requirements of a Good Research Title

1. It should be encompassing enough to give a birds

– eye view of the research
2. It will serve as a framework of the research
report
3. It should not be more than 20 words
4. Do away with terms like
 Study of
 An investigation of
 An inquiry into
 An analysis of
 HYPOTHESIS

 an educated guess
 a statement of relationships
 a statement of expectations
 a working assumption temporarily accepted to be
true and serving as a spring board for researchers in
their quest for truth
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

1. NULL HYPOTHESIS – a statement of no relationship

or no difference

2. ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS – a statement

declaring the existence of relationship or a difference
 PURPOSES OF HYPOTHESIS

1. they are a means of stating assumptions

2. they are a means of presenting or providing explanations
3. they serve as determiners of the relevancy of facts
4. they help the investigator determine the research design,
what research methods and procedures are to be used.
5. they aid the research worker in presenting the conclusion
in the study
6. they are the sources in the formulation of new hypothesis
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS

1. it is an agreement with observed facts

2. it does not conflict with any law of nature which
is known to be true
3. it is stated in the simplest possible terms
4. it permits the application of deductive reasoning
 Theoretical Framework

 prepares the reader for the objectives of the study or that

which is the focus of the study

 gives the reader insight into the study or to know what it is

all about
 Functions of Theory in Research

1. it identifies the beginning of the research problem and

establishes the vision to which the research or
investigation is directed.

2. determines and defines the goal and focus of the research

problem
 Function of Theories:
Evaluation Criteria
1. Predict relationships between variables

Education SES

Self- Salary
Esteem
2. Summarize large amounts of data
(parsimony)

e = mc 2
3. Application to many different
phenomena (generalizability)
4. Generate additional research by
suggesting novel relationships
(new hypotheses)
5. Apply research to practical
problems (utilitity)
Review of Related
Literature
 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 REVIEW – presentation of content, the specifics related

to the problem

 RELATED – relevance to the current study

 LITERATURE – any recorded information on the topic

which is the subject of research
 Review of Related Literature

 The purpose of reviewing the past literature on the

topic is to (1) expand the context of the study, (2) to
help further define the problem, and (3) to provide
an empirical basis for the hypotheses. This section
cites references of significant publications and
current journal articles related to the problem.
 Importance of Related Literature

1. establishes the extent of completeness and care by which

the research was prepared
2. facilitates the formulation of the different aspects of the
research report
3. it influences the statement of the problem and its
methodology
 THREE DIMENSIONS OF RELATED
LITERATURE

 Problem – relatedness in terms of the linkage of one

variable to another

 Population – studies on a particular material one is

interested on

 Variables – studies that have the same variables with

one’s problem or topic
 AREAS OF RELATED LITERATURE

1. previous researches

2. writings of recognized experts, both of which

have a significant bearing on the problem under
investigation
 Conceptual vs Research Literature

Conceptual literature – found in books, articles,

journals, encyclopedia and are not empirically - based

Research literature – taken from scientific researches

substantiated by data
 THREE CONTRIBUTIONS OF RELATED
LITERATURE TO PROBLEM SOLVING

1. A carefully planned program of reading frequently is the

source of significant problems.

2. A systematic canvass of the related literature is the

means of determining whether the proposal study
necessarily duplicates some earlier investigations

3. The knowledge secured from such reading in terms of

sources, procedures and results, represents essential
orientation for definition of the problem, selection of
method, and interpretation of findings.
CRITERIA FOR THE EVALUATION OF A
RELATED LITERATURE

1. clarity of presentation
2. comprehensiveness and exhaustiveness of related
literature
3. appropriateness of method
4. logicality of the problem analysis
5. orderliness of presentation
6. reliability of evidence/ data presented
7. accuracy of content and presentation
8. interestingly presented
9. no unwarranted conclusions
 Be Guided!
 In summarizing related studies, avoid non-
essential details; emphasize major findings and
methodological issues.

 This section should be terminated with a

coherent and systematic synthesis of all
information reviewed.
RESEARCH METHODS
and DESIGNS
 RESEARCH METHODS AND DESIGNS

 METHODS – the different basic and fundamental

procedures of approach which a researcher should follow
to bring about the results of their studies

 TECHNIQUES AND DEVICES – instruments and tools

employed in gathering and collecting needed data and
materials to support and make possible the use of the
method adopted.
 Research Design

 A research design is the arrangement of conditions for

collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to
combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in
procedure. (Claire Selltiz, 1962)

 The research is the plan, structure, and strategy of

investigations of answering the research question is the
overall plan or blueprint the researchers select to carry our
their study.
 It answers the questions. . .

1. What is the study about ?

2. Why is the study being made ?
3. Where will the study be carried out ?
4. What type of data is required ?
5. Where can the required data be found ?
6. What periods of time will the study include ?
7. What will the sample design be?
8. How will the data be analyzed ?
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN THE PROCESS OF
SELECTING THE METHOD OF RESEARCH

1. the method of research should be logically sound

2. the research method must be adequate for the solution of
the problem
3. the investigator must be able to give reasons for the
selection of the research method, and the reasons must be
clear and precise
4. the method of research chosen must be adequately
explained
5. the investigator must see to it that the research is free
from specific weaknesses in research methodology
 Classifications of Research

Methods of working for practical scientific discovery and

technology:

1. Theoretical synthesis - Basic Research

2. Observation and Experiment – Applied Research

3. Invention – Developmental Research

Types of
Research
According to Purpose
 According to purpose

 Predictive (prognostic) – has the purpose of determining

the future operation of the variables under study for the
purpose of controlling such

 Directive – tells what should be done based on findings

(purpose is to remedy unsatisfactory condition)

 Illuminative – concerned with the interaction of the

components of the variables under study
According to
Goal
1. Basic/Pure Research
(Fundamental Research)

 It is done for the development of theories or principles. The goal

of the researcher is to explore in order to come up with principles
which will serve as the bases for further knowledge and
development. (Calderon and Gonzales, 1993)

 Pure research is also problem based.

 It aims to solve perplexing questions of a theoretical nature that

have little direct impact on action, performance and policy
decisions.
 Examples

 Effects of smoke belching cars on pedestrians

 Effects of antibiotics on a persons health

2. Applied Research

 It primarily aims to test theories and concepts

developed for verification, application,
development, support and their relationships to the
existing fund of knowledge.

 Most of the educational researches are applied

research for learning processes and instructional
materials
 Examples
 Factors enhancing participation of students in co –
curricular activities

 Factors affecting poor students’ achievement in

Mathematics
3. Action Research

 It is simpler than basic and applied research.

 The focus is on the immediate solution of a

problem without necessarily using scientific
principles in order to find solutions to a problem.
In education, action research is used to remedy
common teaching and learning problems.
According to type of
Analysis
1. Analytic Research
 The researcher attempts to identify and isolate the
components of the research situation
2. Hellenistic Research
 The researcher begins with the total situation,
focusing on the system first and then on its
internal relationships
According to Choice of Answers to
Problems
1. Evaluative research
 The goal is to find all possible courses of action,
specify and identify them, and tries to find the
most advantageous solution to the problem.
2. Developmental research
 The goal is to find or develop a more suitable
instrument or process
What is a Good
Research?
 What is a Good Research?

 It generates dependable data, being derived by practices

that are conducted professionally, that can be used reliably
for managerial decision making.

 It follows the standards of the scientific method.

 What is a Good Research?

1. Purpose clearly defined.

2. Research process detailed.
3. Research design thoroughly planned.
4. High ethical standards applied.
5. Limitations frankly revealed.
6. Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
7. Findings presented unambiguously.
8. Conclusions justified.
9. Researcher’s experience reflected.
 Purpose Clearly Defined

 The statement of the decision problem should

include its scope, limitations and precise
specifications of the meanings of all words and
terms significant to the research.
 Research Process Detailed

 The research procedures used should be described

in sufficient detail to permit another researcher to
repeat the research.

 Except when secrecy is imposed, research reports

should reveal with candor the sources of data and
the means by which they were obtained
 Research Process Detailed

 Omission of significant procedural details makes it

difficult or impossible to estimate the validity and
reliability of the data and justifiably weakens the
confidence of the reader in the research and any
recommendations based on the research.
 Research Design thoroughly planned

 The procedural design of the research should be

carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible.

 A report of the sampling of the population should

include evidence concerning the degree of
representativeness of the sample.
 Research Design thoroughly planned

 A survey of opinions or recollections ought not to be used

when more reliable evidence is available from
documentary sources or by direct observation.

 Bibliographic searches should be thorough and complete

as possible.

 Experiments should have satisfactory controls.

 Research Design thoroughly planned

 Direct observation should be recorded in writing as soon

as possible after the event.

 Efforts should be made to minimize the influence of

personal bias in selecting and recording data
 High Ethical Standards Applied

 A research design should include safeguards causing mental or

physical harm to participants and should make data integrity a first
priority.

 Researchers should be aware of their responsibility to guard the

welfare of the participants in the studies and also the organization to
which they belong, their clients and colleagues.

 Careful consideration must be given to research situations when there

is a possibility for physical or psychological harm, exploitation,
invasion of privacy and loss of dignity.
 Limitations Frankly Revealed

 The researcher should report with complete

frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects on the findings.
 Adequate Analysis for Decision Maker’s
Needs

 Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to

reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate.

 The validity and reliability of the data should be checked

carefully

 When statistical methods are used, the probability of error

should be estimated and the criteria of statistical
significance applied.
 Findings Presented Unambiguously

 Findings should be presented in a language that is

restrained, clear and precise and where assertions are
carefully drawn and hedged with appropriate reservations
and should reflect an apparent effort to achieve maximum
objectivity.

 The presentation of the data should be comprehensive,

easily understood by the decision maker and organized so
that the decision maker can readily locate critical findings.
 Conclusions Justified

 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the

data of the research and limited to those for which the data
provide an adequate basis.

 The research should be free from the practice of drawing

conclusions from a study with a limited population and
applying them universally.
 Researcher’s Experience Reflected

 The researcher should be experienced, has a good

reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

 The research report should contain information

about the qualifications of the researcher.
RESEARCH
DESIGNS
 Elements of a Good Research Design

 Setting - where the research will take place.

 Subjects - who will be the recipients of an experimental treatment or
will be observed.
 Sample - a reasonable number of subjects, so that the researcher can
make comparisons or describe a phenomenon, and the procedure for
obtaining them.
 Treatment - what the research intervention will be, in an experimental
design or conditions under which data will be collected, in a non-
experimental design.
 Measurement - observation, or data collection methods
 Plan for communication of results, including the way the data will be
analyzed and interpreted.
QUANTITATIVE METHODS OF
RESEARCH
 Survey Research Designs

 These are non-experimental designs that involve studying

populations or universes based on the data gathered from a
sample drawn from them. The data are often gathered
using self-report methods, such as a questionnaire
completed by the study subjects.
 Descriptive Survey

 Descriptive surveys are conducted for the purpose of

accurately portraying a population that has been targeted
because of some specific characteristics.

 Such surveys are often used to determine the extent or

direction of attitudes or behaviors
 Descriptive Survey
 uses questionnaire or other instruments to generate data
prepared by the researcher

 purpose is to describe existing conditions, opinions,

attitudes, impressions, perceptions, and description
trending.

 getting data or information from a variety of subjects taken

from a representative or probability sample or the
population

 survey studies from the point of sampling is called sample

survey if the sample is used and census for the entire
population
Examples

 Population census studies

 Public Opinion surveys
 Status Studies
 Questionnaire & Interview Studies
 Observation Studies
 Documentary Analyses
 Test Score Analysis
Example

In a survey sponsored by the University of Miami,

interview and questionnaire data were collected from 50
mid-western couples who were in their 70s or older and
had been married for 50 years or more. The purpose was
to describe the quality of a long lasting marriage.
Example
 Impressions of Students from Metro Manila on Aids

 Relationship Between Job satisfaction and Attitudes of

Employees Working in Private Institutions
 Disadvantages of survey researches

1. There is a possibility of low returns of questionnaire or

other instruments floated to generate data

2. there is a possibility that their assertions in the

questionnaire are not true or correct

3. there is a possibility that the instrument prepared by the

researcher maybe inadequate or insufficient to gather
data for the study.
 Descriptive normative survey

 uses standardized instruments like mental ability test,

stress and personality questionnaire, morale and job
satisfaction standardized questionnaires and they have
some established norms.
 Descriptive Correlational Survey

 It is designed to discover the direction and magnitude of

relationships among variables in a particular population
of subjects.

 concerned with determining the extent of relationship

existing between variables

 the extent of relationship is determined by the magnitude

of coefficients

 Pearson r
Example
 Mathematics Anxiety and Academic Performance of
Selected Freshmen Students of St. Paul University
Philippines
 Descriptive Evaluative

 It judges the goodness of an existing program

 It is directed to whether or not a program achieved its goal

 Its purpose is to find out whether set criterion were met or

not; to provide ongoing feedback to people who are
responsible for carrying out a plan or a program or to
evaluate the effectiveness of the outcome of the plan or
program.
 Descriptive Assessment

 It is a fact – finding activity that describes conditions that

exists at a particular time such as practices and beliefs.

 It does not propose any hypotheses

 It does not examine relationships between or among

variables, therefore it does not propose any
recommendations for actions
 Descriptive Comparative

 It provides an explanation on the extent of relationship

between two or more variables

 It is used to compare or contrast representative samples

from two or more groups of subjects in relation to certain
designated variables.

 compares the characteristics of groups according to some

selected variables since the main purpose is to determine
the difference without determining the cause
Example
A national survey of attitudes towards “professionalism” or
“leadership aspirations” among graduates of baccalaureate
and associate degree programs.
Assessment/Evaluative Survey

 those studies that relate to the efficiency or

effectiveness of practices, policies, instruments or
other variables that maybe considered
 Trends and Projective Studies

 used to project the demands that will be made in the

future

 regression equations are formed and the probable

behavior of a variable can be projected
Examples

 Forecasting Sales of Beverages in Metro Manila

 Determining Housing Projects by the Year 2018

 Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages
1. it is easy to generate data
2. factors for projection remain constant and are assumed
3. it helps estimate and predict future information
4. when short – term projects are used, they are more reliable
than long range projection

 Disadvantages
1. there is greater probable error of projection
2. data maybe insufficient
Descriptive Narrative Studies

 those that simply tell about the results of the study

 no comparative nor correlational analyses made

 Ex - post facto research studies

 falls under the category of comparative research

 “after the fact”, one that attempts something after the fact,
and where subjects are selected who have undergone some
life experience and where there is an attempt to describe or
explain the experience and often its possible relationship to
some variables

 attempts to determine the possible reason or cause for

existing differences in the behavior of groups or individuals

 same as the causal comparative design

 Descriptive Case Study

 It provides an in-depth analysis of a subject for

investigation such as an individual patient, a family, a
hospital ward, a health care agency, a professional
organization, or a group.

 It is customarily done under natural conditions.

 Case studies can often provide information that is rich and

otherwise difficult to come by. They are also well suited
for studying a process over time.

 It examines only a single subject or a small number of

subjects with respect to a number of variables.
 CASE STUDY DESIGN

Disadvantages:
 It is difficult to argue with certainty that what is learned
from a single case is representative of patterns or trends
in the entire population.

 The money and time spent is high relative to the value

of information obtained.
 Informations needed for case studies

 Name, age, sex, date of birth, place of birth, phone number

(if any)
 Identification of the problem
 Health and development history
 Family history
 Educational history
 Social history
 Economic history
 Psychological history
Steps:

1. Identify the problem of the study

2. State the objectives of the study
3. Identify the unit as the basis of the case study
4. Determine the sources of data
5. Determine the procedures of investigation
6. Collate, analyze and interpret data
 Narrative Studies

 those that simply tell about the results of the study

 no comparative nor correlational analyses made

Experimental Methods of
Research
Experimental Methods of Research

 True experimental design

 Quasi experimental design

 Field experiment
 Experimental Method

 A method that uses the single-variable approach in

problem-solving, whether the experiment is carried on
in the laboratory, classroom or field, i.e., all other
factors are kept constant except a single factor called the
variable, which is manipulated in various ways in order
to determine the results of its functions
Characteristics of True Experimental Designs

1. manipulation – refers to the presence of an experimental

variable which can be introduced in the experiment and
its effects determined

2. control – the researcher is able to control one or more

variables
 Distinguishing Features of an Experimental
Research
 It lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities

 Observations are done under controlled conditions.

 Gathering of valid facts is rigorous.

 Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, classroom or

laboratory experiments are intensive and exacting.

 It is limited to small number of cases.

Matching Methods in an Experimental Design

1. person – to – person matching - people are selected on

the basis of similar or identical personal characteristics

2. matching groups – groups are paired on a variable (ex.

Sex, age, etc)

3. ranking method – subjects for study are ranked in some

selected variables (ex. Achievement, socio – economic
variables, etc)
 1. PRE TEST – POST TEST CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

 Experimental group

experimental treatment

Pre test Post test

 Control group

Pre test Post test

 PRE TEST – POST TEST CONTROL GROUP
DESIGN

 In this design, subjects have been designed randomly to the experimental

or control group
 The experimental treatment is given only to those in the experimental
group, and the pre tests and post tests are those measurements of the
dependent variables that are made before and after the experimental
treatment is performed.
 All true experimental designs have subjects randomly assigned groups,
have an experimental treatment introduced to some of the subjects and
have the effects of the treatment observed.
Advantages:

 The investigator is able to account for events occurring

between time 1 and time 2 through observation of control
group

 It also enables the investigator to control for changes in the

instrumentation, since changes or drifts in measurement
should affect both groups equally

 Randomization decreases, so with selection bias and

maturation.
 2. AFTER / POST TEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP
DESIGN
 Experimental group

experimental treatment

Post test

 Control group

Post test
AFTER / POST TEST ONLY CONTROL GROUP DESIGN

 This design is sometimes called after only control group

design.

 This is composed on two randomly assigned groups, but

neither of which is pretested or premeasured in “the before”
period of time.

 The independent variable is introduced into the experimental

group and withheld from the control group.
ADVANTAGE

 This design can be useful in situations where it is not possible

to pretest the subjects or when pretest is non essential
 3. SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
 Experimental group I
experimental treatment
Pre test Post test
 Control group I

Pre test Post test

 Experimental group II
experimental treatment

Post test
 Control group II

Post test
SOLOMON FOUR GROUP DESIGN
 This design employs two experimental groups and two control groups.
Initially, the investigator randomly assigns subjects to the four groups.
Those in the experimental group 1 are pretested and are tested again after
the treatment.

 Those in the experimental group 2 also receive the treatment but are
observed only after the treatment, but not before.

 Those in control group 1 are observed, on occasions 1 and 2, but they are
not given the experimental treatment.

 Those in control group 2 are observed only on the second occasion without
previous observation or treatment.
ADVANTAGES
 It has great potential for generating information about different sources of
the effect of the dependent variable, because all four groups are studied at
the same time, both the effects of events occurring between time 1 and
time 2 and the maturation of subjects are controlled.

 One can examine the score of control groups 2 for a measure of maturation
without the influence of treatment.

 The investigator can also compare the difference in the groups.

Quasi – Experimental
Research
QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

 It is one with full experimental control, usually randomization,

is not possible.

Subdivisions:

 Non equivalent control group design or the four celled design without
use of randomization

 The time series quasi experimental design

 The multiple time series design

 1. Non equivalent control group design or the four celled
design without use of randomization

 Experimental group ( not randomly selected)

experimental treatment

Pre test Post test

 Control group ( not randomly selected)

Pre test Post test

 2. Time series experimental design

 experimental treatment
Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1

 The time series experiment design, a single group

experiment comprises of series of observations in the
before time period to establish a baseline. The
experimental variable is then introduced, followed by
another series of observation to examine the effect of the
independent variable.
 3. Multiple time series design
 Experimental group

experimental matter
Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1

 Control group

Pre test 1 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 4 3 2 post test 1

Pre – experimental designs or
Non – experimental designs
1. Post test only design

 Known as one – shot survey

 Data is collected only in the post-test

 Illustration:
Time
X O
2. Pre – test- Post – test design

 Known as before – after survey

 Called the one group design
 No control group or control variable

 Illustration:

X (Treatment / Intervention)
O1 O2
Pre – test Post – test
(before X) (after X)
3. Static Group comparison design

 Considers a control and experimental group

 Only the experimental group receives the intervention
 No random assignment is given
QUALITATIVE METHODS OF
RESEARCH
 Historical Design

• The historical approach is a past-oriented research which seeks to

illuminate a question of current interest by an intensive study of
materials that already exist.

• The purpose is to explain the present and to anticipate the future based
on a systematic collection and critical evaluation of data pertaining to
past occurrences.

• It is not simply a massive of searching but a reinterpretation and

critical analyses of these searched facts and events leading to new
insights and conclusions.
 Historical Method
 past – oriented

 its objective is to interpret past events in the light of the

present

 its purpose is to explain the present or anticipate the future

based on a systematic collection through documents and
primary evidence in anticipation of critical evaluation of
data pertaining to past occurunces
Classification of a historical research based
on the recording of the data

1. deliberate – data were recorded with a conscious

effort to preserve information like letters,
photographs, diaries or epitaph

2. incidental – information were supplied inadvertently

although that was not the original intention
 Steps in a Historical Method

1. identification of a problem that is best approached using a

historical research design
2. specify necessary data that can answer the research
question
3. determine the data availability of such data
4. collect known data, new data, and previously unknown data
sources (primary and secondary)
5. evaluate data through internal and external criticisms
6. determine the answers to the problem
 Examples

 The Evolution of Teacher Education Curriculum in the

Philippines

 Homeroom Practices of Elementary Teachers During the

1990s

 Songs and Dances of Cagayanos from 1980 to 1989

 Values of History

 Past events contribute to the understanding of the present life.

 History gives the feeling of importance of human achievements.

 Events, practices, attitudes, ideas and thoughts, customs,

traditions, a material of enduring worth are chronicled to the
generation of today or tomorrow through history.
 Major Procedures involved:

1. data collection with documents

2. subjecting data to external and internal criticisms

3. writing the research report

 EXTERNAL CRITICISM

 It is concerned with the genuineness of the document, the

fact, or the evidence or remains. It deals with data relating
to form and appearance, rather than to meaning and
contents.

 examination of historical sources such as maps, letters,

books, artifacts, etc
 INTERNAL CRITICISM

 It deals with the weighing of statements where the

gathered data are appraised with their internal contents. It
determines the value and accuracy of the statements and
facts in relation to the truth being sought.

 evaluating the contents of the document itself

 an assessment of the accuracy of the statements contained

within the historical material
 HISTORIOGRAPHY

 It is the systematic process of presenting facts and

the interpretation of these. It follows the internal-
external criticism of data.
 Ethnographic method

 defined as “the environment or setting where the

behavior occurs” (Hutchinson, 1906)
 the larger picture or larger domain of which the
phenomenon is a part (Wards, 1900)
 the lack of experience that incorporate thoughts, acts and
the past (Kuhms and Martorana, 1902)
 immediately relevant aspects of a situation(Miles and
Huberman, 1904)
 a frame of reference that directly influences current
decision – making about specific issues(carp, 1909).
 Purpose of Ethnographic Researches

1. discover and describe culture of a people or an

organization

2. understand the social phenomenon from the perspective

of participants

3. analyze the context of participants and narrating their

stories
 Characteristics of Ethnographic researches

1. relative orientation of the ethnographer

2. no hypothesis
3. no statistics
4. ethnic data ”on – going”
5. thick description
6. limited generalizability
 Phenomenological method

 an approach in sociology which is based on human

character as the subject matter of the discipline

 interpretative, intuitive and dialectic, since it uses

primary experiences and social facts
 Appreciative Inquiry

-a method usually correlated with the activity of

organizational development

-a new way of seeing, or developing a new eye for things, or

looking at things differently

-an act of contemplating on an individual or an organization

with love, focusing on what is best and on what it can
become
Sampling Techniques
Types of Probability
Sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

– the best-known and most widely used probability

sample. It is a method of selecting a sample from
a universe such that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included
in the sample.
 Lottery method
 fish – bowl technique
 table of random numbers
 Stratified Random Sampling

 A stratum is defined as a sub – population and a strata

consists of two or more homogeneous population.
Steps:
1. construct the population of the participants and determine
the relevant strata.
2. Select the number using either proportional or equal
allocation
3. Choose the participants within each category according
to simple random sampling methods
 Cluster Sampling

 used when large scale – survey is undertaken.

Groups are chosen and not individuals.
Homogeneity is considered.
 Multi – Stage Sampling

– a method which is rarely used because of the complexity of

its strategy and it incurs a lot of effort, time and expense.
Non – Probability Sampling
 Accidental or Convenience Sampling

 used based on the convenience of the researcher. This

strategy allows the use of any available group for the
research activity

 Snowball – subjects for research suggest other subjects to

the researcher

 network sampling – finding socially devaluated urban

populations such as addicts, alcoholics, criminals or child
abusers, because they are usually hidden from outsiders
 Purposeful or Judgment Sampling

– sometimes called deliberate sampling. The

researcher relies on his judgment as the criterion
for the selection and does not use the rules
governing sampling techniques.
 Quota Sample

– used for infinite population frames and therefore,

the researcher cannot get a random sample. Like
purposive sample, this is not a representative
sample.
Research Tools &
Instruments
 I. The Six Methods of Data Collection

A. Standardized tests

 administered in the same manner

 has high reliability
 has high validity
 has high objectivity
Examples:

• Personality – (or character) Inventories

Piers-Harris Children’s Self-Concept Scale
(How I Feel About Myself)

• Achievement Tests
California Achievement Test
Stanford Achievement Test

• Aptitude Test
B. Questionnaires

 self-report data-collection instrument

 in filled out by participants as part of a research study

Examples:

• rating scale – a continuum of response choices

-- participants are told to use in indicating
their responses

• rankings – indicates the importance assigned by a

participant to an attitudinal object

• semantic differential – scaling technique used to measure

the meaning that participants
give
to attitudinal objects or
concepts
 What makes an effective questionnaire?

1. It should be as brief as possible.

2. The information asked for must be otherwise inaccessible

to the investigator.

3. The subject inquired about must not be a trivial one but

must have importance enough to justify the time and
effort involved.
 What makes an effective questionnaire?

4. The questions ought to be aimed at obtaining factual data

rather than opinions, impressions or estimates.

5. The wording of every item ought to be understandable and

familiar, in order to insure the respondent’s
comprehension of what is being asked.
 What makes an effective questionnaire?

6. For the same reason, the item should be arranged in a

neat and logical order.

7. The questionnaire should be conveniently planned and

set up to take a minimum of the respondent’s time.

8. Clear instructions must be included as to the way the

answers are to be indicated.
 Open Questionnaire

 Open questionnaires are those wherein questions are asked

in such a way that the respondent may explain his answers
in his words, style and convenience.

 The form here generally requires generous spaces after

each question to allow the accommodation of long
answers.
 Closed Questionnaire

 Closed questionnaires are those with spaces that are only to be

checked , words to be underlined or terms to be merely enclosed
for respondent’s answer

 The form is generally preferred by respondents because of the

ease with which they can finish them and the tabulators’
convenience in classifying them. It is also known as the
checklist form.
II. Use Open-ended and Closed-ended Questions
A. Open-ended questions
 enable participants to respond in any way they please
 provide primarily qualitative data

Examples:
What are the strengths of this seminar?
How will the government minimize violence during
elections?

B. Closed-ended questions
 required participants to choose from a limited number of
responses
 predetermined by the researcher
Examples:
What is your marital status (Check one).
Single Separated
Married Widowed
C. Interviews

 a data-collection method in which an interviewer (the researcher)

asks questions of an interviewee (the research participant).

 ways of conducting:
in-person interviews
telephone interview
 The Personal Interview

 One of the most effective devices for gathering data

directly from persons who have actual knowledge of
events.

 Interviews depend on the respondent’s verbal report about

experiences, perceptions, preferences, problems, feelings,
attitudes, or whatever other phenomena may be relevant to
the study being conducted.
 The Personal Interview

 Some interviews may be highly structured, in the sense that

the wording of each question, the sequence in which they are
asked, and the possible responses are planned by developing
an interview schedule (like a script).

 Interviews are trained to use it. Interviewers must have had

some training in psychology, sociology and even
philosophy.

 It would be to the advantage of the interviewer if he has

familiarized himself with the personal traits of his clients.
 Unstructured Interview

 It may be either spontaneous or scheduled, but its

identifying characteristic is that respondents are
encouraged to talk whatever they wish that is relevant to
the researcher’s interest.

 Many such interviews begin with open-ended questions or

statements.

 It allows the interviewer a great deal of freedom in

exploring whatever seems important to the respondent and
promote responses that are SPONTANEOUS, SELF-
REVEALING and PERSONAL.
 The Advantages of Interview

 The response rate is usually better.

 They can be used with people who are unable to read and
write.

 They allow for probing and clarification of complex ideas.

 They allow you to discover the unexpected.

 Disadvantages of the Interview
 They do not directly benefit the respondent in most instances.

 They are time-consuming.

 It is hard to make quantitative comparisons of respondents.

 Interviewers must be trained.

 Subjects may be self-conscious and concerned about their loss of

anonymity.
 Effective Listening Strategies

 Attending to the respondent by maintaining an eye contact.

 Clarifying and perception checking by restating summaries

of the basic message and asking for repetitions.

 Using clarifying questions that elicit examples and

extensions of the original message.
 Requisites for Effective Listening

 Coding what is said into something that makes sense for

you, the interviewer

 Interpreting the meaning in the respondent’s framework or

perspective.

 Responding by convening to the interviewee that he/she is

being heard and understood.
 OBSERVATION

 Used for validation purposes

 Appropriate for keen observers
 Requires objectivity
 Observation of one trait/characteristic at a time
 Observe for consistency
 Done either through distant or participative observation
D. Focus groups
 a type of group interview
 a moderator (researcher) leads a discussion with a small group of
individuals to examine, in detail, how the group members think and
feel about a topic
 is called “focus” because the moderator keeps the individuals in the
groups “focused”
 uses open-ended questions
E. Observation
 the unobtrusive watching of behavioral patterns of
people in certain situations to obtain information
about the phenomenon of interest
 Used for validation purposes
 Appropriate for keen observers
 Requires objectivity
 Observation of one trait/characteristic at a time
 Observe for consistency
 Done either through distant or participative
observation
 Participant Observation

 Requires the researcher to immerse themselves in the lives

of those being studied
 Requires the researcher to engage in a number of activities
like looking, listening, inquiring and recording
How will observation be recorded?

 Recording devices depend upon:

• Detail required of information gathered
• Amount previously known (exploratory vs.
confirmatory)
A. Notation
 Recording behavior in verbal or diagrammatic notes
 Decide what to record and what to look for on the spot
 Write as much as possible as event occurs (steno mask)
B. Pre-coded Checklists

 Select from series of pre-coded checklists

 Decide important information beforehand
(participant characteristics, place, time,
situational characteristics)
 Requires previous diagnostic evaluation
C. Maps
 Recording of activity on floor plans,
diagrams or maps
 Convenient to record behavior of
several people in one general area at
the same time
 Useful to record sequences of behavior
D. Photographs/Videotape

 Accurate recording of behavior

 Record only what you expect (direction of lens, focus,
other noises)
 Requires additional observation of images captured
•What to observe?

 Actor (Who is?)

 Act (doing What?)
 Significant others (with Whom?)
 Relationships (in what Relationship?)
 Sociocultural context (in what Context?)
 Physical setting (Where?)
 Time (Across what times?)
F. Secondary Data
 data originally collected or recorded at an earlier
time
 collected by a different researcher
 collected for a different purpose than the current
research problem at hand

Examples:
-- documents: personal
official
-- archived research data
 Statistics in Research?

 Establish the level of reliability the research has been

undertaken

 Guide in drawing out conclusions for the study

 Basis for inferences for the population

 Make objectives, definite and precise description of data

 Divisions of Statistics

 Descriptive
 Does not use a level of significance
 Simply describe “what is” about the data
 Used to derive profiles or frequency distributions in
exploratory data
 Describes relationship of variables and other characteristics
of people, situations and phenomenon

 Inferential (Parametric & Non - parametric)

 Uses a level of significance
 Used to infer characteristics of the population based from
estimates gathered from a representative sample
 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

1. Percentage and frequency distribution

2. Ratios and Ranking
3. Measures of central tendency
4. Measures of variability
5. Statistics of association
 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

1. Percentage and frequency distribution

 Used to describe the relationship of a part to its whole
Example:
Table 1
Frequency and Percentage Distribution of the
Respondents According to Sex

Sex Frequency Percentage

Male 12 24.00

Female 38 76.00

Total 50 100.00
 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

2. Ratios and Ranking

Example:
Table 2
Major Sources of Stress Among Teachers in X School

Major Sources of Stress Weighted Descriptive Rank

Mean Interpretation
1. Deadline of paper works 3.81 strongly agree 4

2. Interpersonal relations with 3.67 strongly agree 5

co – workers
3. Career improvement 4.08 strongly agree 3

4. Conflicts with superior 4.78 very strongly agree 1

5. Projects 4.35 very strongly agree 2

 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

3. Measures of central tendency

 Mean – computational average; most sensitive measure of
central tendency

 Weighted Mean- arithmetic mean used when options of

items in a questionnaire are assigned points

 Median – halves the distribution into two parts

 Mode – nominal average; highest frequency

 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

4. Measures of variability
 Range – distance between highest and lowest
value in a distribution

 Variance – the square of the standard deviation

 Standard deviation – test of homogeneity and

consistency
 Tools of Descriptive Statistics

5. Statistics of association
 Pearson product moment correlation (Pearson r)
 Describes how the variations of one variable go with the
other
 Involves a dependent and an independent variable
 Serves as a basis for linear regression

Basic assumptions:
1. Linearity of relationship
2. Normality of the distribution
Tools of Inferential
Statistics
 Parametric Tests

 Z – test
 Used as a test of difference when the population standard
deviation is given
 Population mean vs sample mean

 Two sample means

 Two sample proportions

 T – test
 Used when the sample standard deviation is known
 Population mean vs sample mean

 Two sample means

 Paired observations

 Pearson r
 Parametric Tests

 Analysis of variance (ANOVA/ F – Test)

 One way classification - used for testing significant
difference of means of three or more independent samples
with one intervening variable
 Two way classification (with two intervening variable)
 Three way classification (with three intervening variable)
 Non - Parametric Tests

 Chi – square test

 Used to test significant difference or association
 Test of independence, of goodness – of – fit

 Spearman Rho rank correlation coefficient

 Used to test the relationship between two variables when
they are not normally distributed
Problem Identification
and
Research Proposal Generation
What is a problem?

- a situation that is dissatisfying, e.g., falls short of the

expectations and objectives of people or specific groups of
people.

- a condition or situation that deviates the current, existing or

actual situation from the desired state
. . . . .Problem Sources

 Primary - observations, interviews with

concerned people

 Secondary - publications, Statistics from

agencies, monitoring reports
 Generation of Project Ideas

 Can emanate or be derived from Problem and opportunity

areas

Keen Observations
 personal
 others people
 places and activities

 Experience
 extension activities
 workplace, working activities
 personal and others experience
What good will a research-oriented career give me? What is it
for me?

 Contribute to the progress of your agency, community, province,

region, country

 Develop something beneficial to society/people

 Contribute to science and knowledge

 Manifest your latent ingenuity and inventive genius

 Elevate your career as consultant to companies

What good will a research-oriented career give me? What is it
for me?

 For promotion purposes and career growth opportunities

 Additional compensation (honoraria, royalty, etc)

 Be recognized and respected personality-scientist

 Frequent travels locally and to beautiful places abroad

 Leave a legacy to your institution, family and heirs

Preparation

 The importance of research training

 Acquisition of basic skills.
 Working under a committed mentor and/or
supervisor.
 Benefit of dedicated time for absorption in
research.
Questions to ask oneself before doing research

 Am I alert?
 Am I observant?
 Do I persevere?
 Am I well-organized?
 Do I have a scientific spirit?
 Do I have deep curiosity about nature?
 Do I have a big desire to know about the world?
 Am I scholarly in my disposition and aptitude?
 Formulate the Research Problem

 Any NEW ideas?

Acquire information needed from
* Interviews
* Readings
* Observations
* Government programs
* Priority thrusts
 Gather Needed/Sufficient Background Information

 Solid data available

 Previous studies done on the subject and related subjects (literature
review)
 Methods used/equipment
- Systematic
- Comprehensive
- Extensive but selective
- High throughput
- Sensitive
 Ethical issues
 READ! READ! READ!

 Scientific journal articles/organization paper

 Previous research programs
 Books/monographs
 Newspapers/periodicals
 Archives
 Correspondences and manuscripts
 Abstract
 Internet
 Electronic sources, CD-ROM
 Conduct a Preliminary Survey

 Clues for narrowing down the problem

 Potentialities for success

 Significance of conducting the research

 Suggestions for experimental design

 Propose a Title

 Should be brief and concise

 Descriptive and comprehensive

 An adequate index to the key contents of the

* statement of the problem
* method(s) used
* expected results
Evaluate Results

Prepare Report
 Development of APA Ethical
Principles in the Conduct of Research
with Human Participants
•History
 Committee on Ethical Standards in Psychological
Research (1953)
• Questionnaire: 9,000 + psychologists
• Interview: 35 researchers written on topic of
research ethics
 Dissemination of draft
• City, state, regional and national meetings
• Published in Monitor
 Revised draft gained acceptance in 1973 by general
membership of APA
• Proposed revision every five years
• Latest revision: December, 1992

 Present 10 Principles published in 1982, ease of

understanding
Ethical Principles

•Principle A:
In planning a study, the
investigator has responsibility to
make a careful evaluation of its
ethical acceptability.
 •Principle B:
Determine degree of risk to subject
(deception, stressful conditions, or
take medication).

•Principle C:
Investigator always retains
responsibility for ethical practice.
 •Principle D:
Prior to conducting research, the
investigator must disclose obligations
and responsibilities of both subject
and investigator (influence willingness
to participate).
Not for: anonymous surveys or naturalistic
observation.
 •Principle E:
If deception is going to be used:
(1) determine if justified;
(2) identify alternatives to deception,
if any;
(3) ensure participants provided with
sufficient explanation as
immediate as possible.
 •Principle F:
Investigator respects individual's
freedom to decline at any time during
course of experiment.
 •Principle G:
Investigator protects participant from
physical and mental discomfort, harm,
and danger that may arise from
research procedures.
 •Principle H:
After collection of data, researcher
provides participant with information
about the nature of the study
(debriefing).
 •Principle I:
If research procedures result in
undesirable consequences for
individual participant, investigator
has responsibility to detect and
remove or correct these consequences
(long-term).
 •Principle J:
Information obtained about research
participant during the course of an
investigation is confidential unless
otherwise agreed upon in advance.
The Challenge:
What kind of research will I
make?
How will it contribute to the
spring of knowledge?
With the long and meticulous process of research, one is
not freed from committing mistakes … but sometimes
discoveries are suggested by

FAILURES

“There is no measure for academic excellence

except that of research which starts with
wonderment and ends with trying to resolve
something.”
- Dr. Priscilla C. Viuya
Good Luck in integrating the concepts in
your future researches . . .