Lecture 2

Philosophical Ethics
Investigating Ethics
 In the previous lecture we have understood
the term “ethics” and dwelled in a few ethical
scenarios.
 There is a complete science behind

investigating ethics.
 Let us now look at some of the background

behind analysis of the ethical scenarios.

The Process

 Apply a procedure to systematically analyse

an ethical issue,
 Conduct a dialectic to explore an ethical issue

and reason about it,

 Recognize descriptive and normative claims

in a dialectic.
Dialectic
 Premise 1: We want to create attitudes,
conventions, rules, and laws that encourage
the development and use of I.T. for the good
of us all. We do not want I.T. to serve the
interests of a few, degrade our environment,
etc.
 Premise 2: In discussing computer ethical

issues, we want to give reasons for our

intuition and moral beliefs so arguments can
be analyzed.
Dialectic
 A dialectic (a dialogue from intuition per
case, to argument based on principle, to
theory) may not always lead to a definitive
conclusion or a unanimous agreement, but it
should increase knowledge and
understanding.
Examples
◦ Eg. Intuitive claim: euthanasia is wrong.
 Reason : human life has the highest value and should not be
intentionally ended.
 Test this principle : war? terminally ill?
 Refine principle : introduce self-defence, quality of life, etc.
 Progress toward a consistent, coherent, general theory.

 First we examine traditional ethical theories,

concepts and analytic techniques.
 These establish a common vocabulary and
framework which we can use to articulate moral
ideas.
Descriptive and Normative Claims
 A descriptive claim states how people behave.
Such empirical statements can be confirmed
or refuted by observation. Sociologists and
psychologists make descriptive claims.

 A normative claim states how people ought to

behave. Such statements are prescriptive.
Philosophers make normative claims.
Instrumental and Intrinsic Values
 Something is of instrumental value if it is a
means to an end, ie. leads to something else.
Money is of instrumental value.

 Something is of intrinsic value if is desired for

its own sake.
◦ Happiness is of intrinsic value.
Investigating Ethics - I

◦ Recognize an ethical issue in a given situation

 quarantine situation while under investigation
 collect evidence, e.g. normative claims

◦ Identify the participants, stakeholders, victims,

 ie. identify the players or parties
 collect statements, documents
 notify any relevant external parties
Investigating Ethics - I
 Explain the ethical problem faced by the
players, i.e. define the moral dilemma
 Formulate alternative solutions to the ethical

problem, i.e. list the options

◦ clarify the principles, values, outcomes underlying
each solution
• Prioritise the alternative solutions in terms of their
values and outcomes, i.e. state your preferred
solution to the ethical problem.
 give a short rationale for your decision
 generalise where possible
So where do we go from here?
 If you understand those terms and the
process, we can now look at the philosophy
behind the ethics and some theories which
have formed the groundwork of all the
analysis process.
Theories behind Ethics
Philosophical Ethics
 The objective of this lecture is to introduce
current and prospective I.T. professionals to
three (3) major ethical theories: relativism,
utilitarianism and deontology.
 We cannot possibly do justice to over 2000

years of intellectual effort behind these

theories. But we can expand the ethical
procedure introduced in earlier to include the
reasoning power of an ethical theory when it
can support a dialectic.
Relativism
 Is what is right for me necessarily right for
you? Is ethics relative …to the individual or
society?
 Relativism can be formulated as :

a) There are no universal rights and wrongs, and

b) right and wrong are relative to one's society.

A variant (we ignore) formulates (b) as :

b') right and wrong are relative to the individual
 (a) is a negative claim, i.e. something denied.
 (b) is a positive claim, i.e. something asserted
Relativism
◦ Descriptive facts cited as supporting relativism
:What is considered right and wrong varies between
cultures. E.g.. infanticide.
◦ What is considered right/wrong at one time in a
society may change. E.g.. slavery.
◦ The morals we are taught depend on our religion /
environment.
Relativism suffers from problems
 Diverse opinions on right and wrong are not
evidence that no universal moral code exists.
 If relativists make normative claims, they risk

inconsistency. E.g.. :
◦ "We are bound by the rules of our society."
◦ …contradicts (a) no universal rights and wrongs
◦ "Everyone ought to respect everyone else."
◦ …contradicts (a) and seems inconsistent with (b)
◦ right and wrong are relative to one's society.
More Problems
◦ Relativism is problematic in practice. E.g.
 What are the rights and wrongs governing interactions
between societies?
 How do we justify our morals except by saying "they
are the rules in my society".
 How is rebellion ever justified ? (cf. Jesus, Gandhi, …)
 Agnostic relativists claim they don't know yet whether
there are universal rights and wrongs.
Utilitarianism
 It is a form of consequentialism which
evaluates behaviour in terms of
consequences.
 Utility principle: Everyone ought to act so as

to bring about the greatest amount of

happiness for the greatest number of people.
 (Cf. Egoism: You ought to act so as to bring

about the most good consequences for

yourself)
Why is it good?
 Happiness is the ultimate intrinsic good.
 Morality must be based on creating as much

of this good as possible.

 The right action is the one that produces the

most overall net happiness (good minus bad).

 Rule-utilitarians argue we ought to adopt

rules, which if followed by everyone, would,

in the long run and in general, maximise
happiness.
More good..
 Act-utilitarians treat such rules as rules of
thumb – to be broken if it is clear that more
happiness will result.
 Consider: "tell the truth", "keep your

promises". Act- utilitarianism captures part of

relativism – the morally right action depends
on the situation.
Arguments against it..
 According to utilitarianism, no one person's
un/happiness is more important than
another's. Since great overall happiness may
result from sacrificing the happiness of a few,
utilitarianism appears to justify imposing
enormous burdens on some individuals for
the sake of others.
 Consider : slavery, the disabled, organ

transplants, use of expensive and scarce

medical equipment, e.g. kidney dialysis
Part II
Deontology = duty science (in Greek etymology)
 It is an ethical theory that states "at least some

acts are morally obligatory regardless of their

consequences for human welfare".
 What makes an action right or wrong?
 For utilitarians, it is the consequences. For

deontologists, it is the principle behind the act.

E.g. It is not morally worthy to tell the truth
because a reward is expected, or punishment for
lying is feared. It is right to tell the truth because
I accept I must respect the other person.
In favour
 If happiness is the highest good, blind
instinct would suit us better than our unique
rationality which lets us reason, decide & act.
 Animals cannot be moral beings because they

lack the rationality that allows us to be moral.

 We must not deny a person's rationality.

◦ Hence the categorical imperative (C.I.) :

 Never treat another person merely as a means; always
respect individuals as ends in themselves.
Ethical Theories- contd.
 Let us now look at some more ethical models.
 This portion has been adopted from the

recommended textbook, chapter 2.

◦ We will now discuss the following:
 Borromean knot of ethics,
 6C model of building an ethical culture.
Borromean knot
The three Borromean principles
 Consistency : a "subjective" aspect in which one internalises
practice to shape intentional actions. Here ethical acts are
deliberate, chosen, shaped and made justifiable by the
personal coherence of internalised rules and concepts, ,
meaning and values,
 Consequences: the "objective" aspect of ethics which sees

practice as externalised individual or social behaviour, in

terms of its known and anticipated causes and consequences,
both immediate and long-term and
 Care: in which the carer attends to the cared-for in a special

mode of non-selective attention or engrossment which

extends outward across a broad web of relations. It is a
holistic and responsive making of reciprocal connections in
order to help others in a special act of receptivity.
6C model
 Borromean model can be adopted and
changed to suit the needs of modern times
and requirements.
 In fact we can add few more to it as:
 Consistency + Consequences + Care +

Character + Communication = Ethical culture.

 What role do you think character and

communication play?
Summary of models
◦ Individual vs. Collective
◦ Relativism, although often discredited, provides
this dimension for locating where moral authority
lies: the individual or the collective. Each person
deciding an ethical issue implicitly chooses a
reference point on this dimension. Values (virtues)
of the individual include: courage, prudence,
temperance, justice, faith, hope, charity, honesty,
trustworthiness. Values (justice) of the collective
include: fairness, equal opportunity, merit, greatest
need.
Summary
◦ Positivism vs. Phenomenology
 Positivist theories rely on observation, empirical
evidence and induction to arrive at principles to decide
ethical issues.
 Utilitarianism is of this type, particularly as
represented by Aristotle to John Stuart Mill.
Phenomenologist theories rely on a universal concept
of goodness and what is given in the ethical issue,
situation or case. Pure reason decides each issue, eg.
reductio ad absurdum. Deontology is of this type,
particularly as represented by Kant. Phenomenology
grew from the dialectic method of Socrates and Plato.
Summary
◦ Consequences vs. Rules
◦ Consequentialist ethical theories rest on taking
actions that produce the best results/consequences
◦ Rule based ethical theories hold that good actions
result from adopting the correct rules of behaviour.
These rules can be intuitive, aesthetic or religious.