ECE 027

Fundamentals of Elctronic
Circuits

Module 1 - Circuit analysis

involving Diodes

Engr. Raymart Aurora

I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
After we learn about the different graphs for each bias condition of the
diode, we would now learn that for every identified diode current I D
and diode voltage VD there is an identified operating point. The
Operating Point or Quiscent point or Q point will tell us what
region or what bias condition the diode is operating. As the operating
point of a diode moves from one region to another the resistance of the
diode will also change due to the nonlinear shape of the characteristic
curve.

It will be demonstrated in the next few slide that the type of applied
voltage or signal will define the resistance level of interest.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
1. DC Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor
diode will result in an operating point on the characteristic curve that
will not change with time. The resistance of the diode at the operating
point can be found simply by finding the corresponding levels of V D
and ID as shown in Fig. 1.

operating point or Q - point

Figure 1
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
1. DC Resistance

To determine the DC resistance of the diode,

- where VD is the forward DC voltage drop and ID is the forward DC

current.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
1. DC Resistance
Sample problem to calculate DC resistance
Determine the dc resistance levels for the diode of Fig. 2
a. I D = 2 mA (low level)
b. I D = 20 mA (high level)
c. V D = 10 V (reverse-biased)

Figure 2
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
1. DC Resistance
Sample problem to calculate DC resistance
Solution

- So what can you with the diode operating conditions at (a), (b) and
(c).
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
If a sinusoidal rather than a dc input is
applied, the situation will change
completely. The varying input will move
the instantaneous operating point up and
down a region of the characteristic curve
and thus defines a specific change in
current and voltage as shown in Fig. 3 .

With no applied varying signal, the point

of operation would be the Q -point
determined by the applied dc levels. The
designation Q-point is derived from the
word quiescent , which means “still or
unvarying.”

Figure 3
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve
through the Q -point as shown in Fig. 4
will define a particular change in voltage
and current that can be used to determine
the ac or dynamic resistance for this
region of the diode characteristics.

Dynamic resistance is derived from

Shockley’s Diode Equation. It defines the
diode resistive nature when an AC source
which depends on the DC polarisation of
the PN junction diode is connected to it. Figure 4
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
An effort should be made to keep the change in voltage and current as
small as possible and equidistant to either side of the Q -point. In
equation form,

where Δ signifies a finite change in the quantity.

The steeper the slope, the lower is the value of ΔVd for the same
change in ΔId and the lower is the resistance. The ac resistance in
the vertical-rise region of the characteristic is therefore quite small,
whereas the ac resistance is much higher at low current levels. In
general, therefore, the lower the Q-point of operation (smaller
current or lower voltage), the higher is the ac resistance.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
But there is an equation that can also find the dynamic resistance simply
by substituting the quiescent value of the diode current into the
equation.

ID = FORWARD DC CURRENT

There is no need to have the characteristics available or to worry

about sketching tangent lines. It is important to keep in mind,
however that this is accurate only for values of ID in the vertical-
rise section of the curve.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
Example
For the diode circuit shown, calculate the ac resistance, rd, if R =
10kohms.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
Solution
Using Superposition theorem, we determine first the value of ID by
considering only first the DC source.
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
 
2. AC or Dynamic Resistance
Solution
Then, to determine rd:

 
26 𝑚𝑉
𝑟𝑑 =
0.93 𝑚𝐴
 
Ω
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
3. Average AC Resistance
If the input signal is sufficiently large to produce a broad swing such as
indicated in Fig. 5, the resistance associated with the device for this
region is called the average ac resistance.

Figure 5
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
3. Average AC Resistance
The average ac resistance is, by definition, the resistance determined by a
straight line drawn between the two intersections established by the
maximum and minimum values of input voltage.

Figure 5
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
 
3. Average AC Resistance
To determine average AC Resistance
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
 
3. Average AC Resistance
To demonstrate the formula in getting

Two pts :
Point A = (Vd, Id) = (0.65V,2mA)
Point B = (Vd, Id) = (0.725V,17mA) B

Figure 5
I. RESISTANCE LEVELS of a Diode
4. Summary of resistance levels
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

- An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements

properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device or system in a
particular operating region.
- Diode symbol can be replaced with this equivalent
circuit, and can be solved with traditional circuit
analysis
- Three different diode approximations or diode
equivalent circuit models can be used when
analyzing diode circuits. The one used depends on
the desired accuracy of your circuit calculations.
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

i. First Approximation/First equivalent circuit model

The first approximation treats a forward-biased

diode like a closed switch with a voltage drop of zero
volts, as shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

i. First Approximation/First equivalent circuit model

Likewise, the first approximation treats a reverse-

biased diode like an open switch with zero current, as
shown in Fig. 3.

Figure 3
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

i. First Approximation/First equivalent circuit model

The graph in Fig.4 indicates the ideal forward- and
reverse-bias characteristics.

Figure 4
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

i. First Approximation/First equivalent circuit model

- Note : The first approximation of a diode is often

used if only a rough idea is needed of what the
circuit voltages and currents should be. The first
approximation is sometimes called the ideal diode
approximation.
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

ii. Second Approximation/Second equivalent circuit

model

The second approximation treats a forward-biased diode like an

ideal diode in series with a battery or DC voltage, as shown in Fig.
5. For silicon diodes, the battery voltage is assumed to be 0.7 V, the
same as the barrier potential, V B , at a silicon p - n junction.

Figure 5
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS

ii. Second Approximation/Second equivalent circuit

model

The second approximation of a reverse-biased diode is an open

switch.

Figure 6
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
ii. Second Approximation/Second equivalent circuit model
The graph in Fig. 7 indicates the forward- and reverse-bias
characteristics of the second approximation. Notice that the diode
is considered off until the forward voltage, V F , reaches 0.7 V.
Also, the diode is assumed to drop 0.7 V for all currents that pass
through it. The second approximation is used if more accurate
answers are needed for circuit calculations.

Figure 7
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
The third approximation of a diode includes the bulk resistance,
designated rB . The bulk resistance, rB , is the resistance of the p
and n materials. Its value is dependent on the doping level and the
size of the p and n materials.

The third approximation of a forward-biased diode is shown in

Fig. 8.

Figure 8
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
- The total diode voltage drop using the third approximation is
calculated using the formula :

where VF = forward voltage of diode

IF = forward current of diode
VB = battery voltage of diode
rB = bulk resistance

The bulk resistance, rB , causes the forward voltage across a diode to increase slightly
with increases in the diode current.
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
Figure 9 shows the third approximation of a reverse-biased diode.
The resistance across the open switch illustrates the high leakage
resistance for the reverse-bias condition. Notice the small leakage
current in the graph of Fig. 1.26 when the diode is reverse-biased.
This is a result of the high resistance that exists when the diode is
reverse-biased.

Figure 9
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
The graph in Fig. 10 shows the forward- and reverse-bias
characteristics included with the third approximation. Notice the
slope of the diode curve when forward-biased.

Figure 10
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
The value of the bulk resistance, rB , can be determined by using
the formula :
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
III. Third Approximation/Third equivalent circuit model
Sample Problem for bulk resistance
A silicon diode has a forward voltage drop of 1.1 V for a forward
diode current, IF, of 1 A. Calculate the bulk resistance, rB.

Solution :
First, we can assume that the diode current, IF, is zero when the
forward voltage of the silicon diode is exactly 0.7 V. Then we use
the formula :
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
Simple Diode circuit with application of the three diode equivalent
circuit models
Let's have our first circuit analysis involving circuits with diodes
and applying the three diode equivalent circuits. Find IL and VL,
the current and voltage of the load resistor.

A. Original Circuit
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
B. Solving the Original circuit using the first approximation model

Using the first approximation model circuit, the new circuit is

shown below
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
B. Solving the Original circuit using the first approximation model
Since the diode is replaced with a closed switch (shorted), the load
resistor RL is directly connected to our input voltage Vin. We can
simply directly use Ohm's law to solve IL and VL. Solution is
shown below.
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
C. Solving the Original circuit using the second approximation
model

Using the second approximation model circuit, the new circuit is

shown below
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
C. Solving the Original circuit using the second approximation
model
The diode is replaced with a closed switch (shorted) and a battery.
The battery would introduce a voltage drop to the circuit. To solve
the unknown paramters, Kirchoff's Voltage law and Ohm's Law
are used. Solution is shown below. Note that VB is 0.7V for Si
diodes
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
D. Solving the Original circuit using the third approximation
model
Using the third approximation model circuit, the new circuit is
shown below
II. DIODE EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS
D. Solving the Original circuit using the third approximation
model
The diode is replaced with the bulk resistance of the diode and a
battery. The battery and the bulk resistance would introduce a
voltage drop to the circuit. To solve the unknown parameters,
Kirchoff's Voltage law and Ohm's Law are used. Solution is shown
below.
III. Diode Applications
Points to remember:
Before we proceed with a more interesting circuits, let's establish first the
recurring steps before performing the circuit analysis.
1. For each configuration, the state of each diode must first be
determined. Which diodes are forward - biased or "on” and which
are reverse - biased or “off”?
2. Once determined, the appropriate equivalent can be substituted So
for our case lets use the SECOND APPROXIMATE DIODE
CIRCUIT MODEL and the remaining parameters of the network can
be determined.
3. If a diode is in the “on” state, one can either place a 0.7-V drop for
Si diode and 0.3-V for Ge diode across the element or redraw the
network with the Vk equivalent circuit (considering of course that
we are using the 2nd approximate circuit model)
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 1
Find Vd, Vr and Id using the second
approximate model
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 1
Solution
Although the “pressure” establishes a current with the same direction as the
arrow symbol, the level of applied voltage is insufficient to turn the silicon
diode “on.” The point of operation on the characteristics is shown below.
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 1
Solution
Given with the point of operation and using the second approximate diode
model, we can redraw the circuit as shown below.
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 1
Solution
Thus to solve the unknown parameters, (Note : E is the input voltage source
0.5V)
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 2
Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit (Si = 0.7V
and LED (red) = 1.8V
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 2
Solution : Input voltage source E = 12V, which is
enough to forward bias the Si diode and LED (RED).
Redrawing the circuit (again using the second
approximate model)
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 2
Solution
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 3
Determine ID , VD2, and Vo for the circuit
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 3
Solution:
To determine the states of diodes, we remove the diodes and
determining the direction of the resulting current I result in the
circuit. There is a match in current direction for one silicon diode but
not for the other silicon diode.
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 3
Solution:
The combination of a short circuit in series with an open circuit
always results in an open circuit and ID =0 A, as seen in the redrawn
circuit below:
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 3
Solution:
The question remains as to what to substitute for the silicon diode.
For the analysis to follow in this course, simply recall for the actual
practical diode that when I D = 0 A, V D = 0 V (and vice versa).
Thus :
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 3
Solution:
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 4
Determine I , V1 , V2 , and Vo for the series dc
configuration
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 4
Solution
To determine the state of diode, the redrawn circuit is shown below.
We can see that E1 higher potential than E2 . We can expect more
"electric pressure" from the Anode to the Cathode of the diode.
Thus we would expect that diode is forward biased.
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES DIODE CONFIGURATIONS –
Example 4
Solution
Let's redraw the circuit above to have a better look with circuit and
analyze the circuit easily. Note that the “on” state is noted simply by
the additional V D = 0.7 V considering we are using the second
approximate model.
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 1
Determine Vo , I1 , ID1, and ID2 for the parallel diode configuration
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 1
Solution
To determine the state of diode, the redrawn circuit is shown below.
We can see that E exerts the "electric pressure" from the Anode to
the Cathode of the two parallel diodes. Thus we would expect that
diode is forward biased. For the applied voltage the “pressure” of the
source acts to establish a current through each diode in the same
direction. Since the resulting current direction matches that of the
arrow in each diode symbol and the applied voltage is greater than 0.7
V, both diodes are in the “on” state. The voltage across parallel
elements is always the same and :
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 1
Solution
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 1
Solution
THINGS TO PONDER:

This example demonstrates one reason for placing diodes in parallel.

If the current rating of the diodes is only 20 mA, a current of 28.18
mA would damage the
device if it appeared in one diode alone . By placing two in parallel,
we limit the current to a safe value of 14.09 mA with the same
terminal voltage.
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 2
Determine the voltage Vo for the network (Vth (Si) = 0.7V and
Vth (Green LED) = 2V
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 2
Solution

Initially, it might appear that the applied voltage will turn both diodes
“on” because the applied voltage (“pressure”) is trying to establish a
conventional current through each diode that would suggest the “on”
state. However, if both were on, there would be more than one voltage
across the parallel diodes, violating one of the basic rules of network
analysis: The voltage must be the same across parallel elements.
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 2
Solution

The resulting action can best be explained by remembering that there

is a period of build-up of the supply voltage from 0 V to 12 V even
though it may take milliseconds or microseconds. At the instant the
increasing supply voltage reaches 0.7 V the silicon diode will turn
“on” and maintain the level of 0.7 V since the characteristic is vertical
at this voltage—the current of the silicon diode will simply rise to the
defined level. The result is that the voltage across the green LED will
never rise above 0.7 V and will remain in the equivalent open-circuit
state as shown with the redrawn circuit
III. Diode Applications
i. PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS Example 2
Solution
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES - PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS
Example 1
Determine the currents I1 , I2 , and ID2
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES - PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS
Solution
The redrawn circuit in the next slide. The applied voltage
(pressure) is such as to turn both diodes on, as indicated by
the resulting current directions in the network. Note the
use of the abbreviated notation for “on” diodes and that the
solution is obtained through an application of techniques
applied to dc series–parallel networks.
III. Diode Applications
i. SERIES - PARALLEL DIODE
CONFIGURATIONS
Solution
IV. Diode Applications
i. Clipper Circuits

Clippers are networks that employ diodes to “clip” away a

portion of an input signal without distorting the remaining
part of the applied waveform.
Example is our half wave rectifier circuit:
IV. Diode Applications
i. Clipper Circuits
There are two general categories of clippers: series
and parallel. The series configuration is defined as
one where the diode is in series with the load,
whereas the parallel variety has the diode in a
branch parallel to the load.
IV. Diode Applications
i. Clipper Circuits - Series
IV. Diode Applications
i. Clipper Circuits - Series
IV. Diode Applications
i. Clipper Circuits - Parallel
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
A clamper is a network constructed of a diode, a
resistor, and a capacitor that shifts a waveform to a
different dc level without changing the appearance
of the applied signal.
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
Clamping networks have a capacitor connected
directly from input to output with a resistive element
in parallel with the output signal. The diode is also
in parallel with the output signal.
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
There is a sequence of steps that can be applied to
help make the analysis straightforward. It is not the
only approach to examining clampers, but it does
offer an option if difficulties surface.

Step 1: Start the analysis by examining the response

of the portion of the input signal that will forward
bias the diode.
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
Step 2: During the period that the diode is in the
“on” state, assume that the capacitor will charge up
instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the
surrounding network.
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
Step 3: Assume that during the period when the diode is
in the “off” state the capacitor holds on to its established
voltage level.
Step 4: Throughout the analysis, maintain a continual
awareness of the location and defined polarity for Vo to
ensure that the proper levels are obtained.
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
Thus, to get Vo, Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around the input loop results in
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
Thus, to get Vo, Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law
around the input loop results in
IV. Diode Applications
ii. Clamper Circuits
END

ECE 027 Fundamentals of Elctronic Circuits –

Module 1