NORM IN PRODUCED

WATERS: BASICS OF
PROBLEM AVOIDANCE

PRESENTATION TO THE SPE

WATER AND WASTE WATER
MANAGEMENT STUDY GROUP.

19 MAY 2014

GEORGE E. KING, P.E.

 EPA

BBC

COMPARISON DOSES

Total background is about 620

mrem/yr and OSHA occupational
limit is 5,000 mrem/yr.

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 SOME US BACKGROUND LEVELS
Location Ra
226
Ra
228
Units Source
Radium-226 and 228 in Drinking Water
Air 1.5x10-5 2.3x10-3 pCi/m3 California Public Health Goal, March 2006
Radium-226 and 228 in Drinking Water
Dust (over NYC) 8x10-5 1.5x10-4 pCi/m3 California Public Health Goal, March 2006
Radium-226 and 228 in Drinking Water
Soil (356 samples from 33 states) 1.1 pCi/g California Public Health Goal, March 2006
Radium-226 and 228 in Drinking Water
Rock 0.42 to 1.3 pCi/g California Public Health Goal, March 2006
USGS 1998
Water (990 samples) 0.4 (mean) 0.5 (mean) pCi/L
Contaminated 1 to 37,000 pCi/g From coal burning &
Soil mining/milling

Extremes from limited areas in the North Sea – 2000 to 27,000 pCi/g for scale and 130 to 1300 pCi/g in sludge.

Rule of thumb: if on-site readings background readings are about twice the normal
background levels of 10 to 15 mR/hr., NORM may be present in equipment, soil, water or
air.
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 RADIATION TYPES
alpha and beta
particles are the
most damaging to
humans. Gamma
rays are much less
damaging.

Alpha (a) particles – cannot penetrate a layer of dead skin

Beta (b) particles – stopped by thin metal
Gamma (g) waves – penetrates steel and stopped by lead
The principal hazard from alpha and beta energy
is from inhalation and ingestion.
4 Marcellus Shale • Issue Number 4 • August 2011
 PARTICLE OR WAVE?
 gamma or (g) – small ray or wave, not a particle, travels far, very
penetrating and can pass through most shielding except lead. When not
highly concentrated, it is not felt to be damaging to humans (in small
concentration).
 beta or (b) – small particles, size of an electron, travels short distances (30
to 90 ft), can be carried further by wid. Not very penetrating and can be
stopped by thin metal shielding (even aluminum). Route of contamination is
ingestion and inhalation. Damage is from breaking bonds, tissue damage in
humans and forms toxins. Attracted to calcium in bones.
 alpha (a) – larger particles (2 protons and 2 neutrons), positive charge. Not
transported by wind, but can pass through air for short distances. Cannot
penetrate a layer of dead skin or a piece of paper. Causes 20 times more
damage than beta particles. Route of contamination is ingestion and
inhalation. Attracted to chloride in bones.

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 UNIT DESCRIPTIONS
 Roentgen (R) - pronounced Ranken in the US
 A unit of exposure – the amount of gamma radiation to which a body is
subjected (or that is emitted from an object).
 Rem (Roentgen equivalent man) (Rem describes potential
biological damage).
 A unit of radiation dose equivalence.
 Rad (radiation absorbed dose) – the amount of any type of
radiation which will deposit 100 ergs of energy per gram in any
material.
 Curie (Ci) – the Curie is a unit of measurement for activity
(expressed as per gram for soil, per m3 for air and per liter for
water.
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 UNITS FOR RADIOACTIVITY
“SI” Unit What does it mean? US Unit Conversion
Gray or Gy Amount of radiation rad (radiation 1Gy = 100 rad
adsorbed by a material absorbed dose)

Sievert or Sv Exposure level or dose Rem 1Sv=100Rem

equivalent (& effect)

Becquerel or Bq Activity Level or Total Curie (Ci) 1Bq = 2.7x10-11 Ci

energy from radioactivity

Coulomb/kilogram or C/kg Exposure Roentgen (R) 1 C/kg = 3876 R

Common multiplier: kilo (k) = 10+3; mega = 10+6; giga = 10+9; tera = 10+12
Common sub-unit:
Milli- (m) = 1/1,000th or 10-3; micro- (m) = 10-6; nano (n) = 10-9; pico (p) = 10-12
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 NATURALLY OCCURRING RADIOACTIVE MATERIAL
NORM IN THE GENERAL ENVIRONMENT
 Texas definition: Anything that constitutes, is contained in, or
has contaminated oil and gas waste and exceeds the TDSHS of
50mR/hr. emanation rate or has a concentration of greater
than 30 pCi/g. (TRC Ch 4, Subchapter F).
 If NORM accumulates as result of technological (human)
activity, such as oil & gas production, it is called Technologically
Enhanced NORM or TENORM.
 If TENORM accumulates to levels above natural background
levels, it may present a human health risk and require removal.
 The best way to treat NORM is to prevent its occurrence.
 Inspection and removal must be done by a specialist.
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 WHAT ARE THE RADIONUCLIDES?
(MOST IMPORTANT ARE RADIUM-226, RADIUM-228 AND RADON-222)
U-238 Th-232
Th-228
U-234
 14 x 10 yrs
9 
 4.5 x 109 yrs 
1.2 mins 6.1 hrs Thorium-232
 240,000 yrs  1.9 yrs
Uranium-238
Pa-234 Ac-228 Decay Series
Decay Series
 Th-230 
Ra-224
24 days
5.8 yrs
Th-234  77,000 yrs
Ra-228  3.6 days

Ra-
226 Rn-220

 1,600 yrs
Po-212
 55 sec

Rn-222 
Po-214 Po-210
Po-216 61 mins 
 3.8 days   300 nsec
20 mins 5 days
Bi-212
 160  0.15 sec
Po-218 sec
Bi-214 Bi-210  Pb-208 (stable)
 3.1 mins 11 hrs
   140 days  61 mins
27 mins 22 yrs Pb-212 
3.1 mins
Pb-214
Pb-210 Pb-206
Tl-208
(stable)

Source: US DOE Office of Science, K.P. Smith

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 TENORM
 Technically enhanced NORM
 Concentrated downhole or at surface by:
 Evaporation
 Scales
 Filtration
 Precipitation
 Sludge (silt stabilized emulsions)
 Flocculation
 Scale mill cuttings
 Prevention? - keep it in the water.

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 NORM IN THE OIL AND GAS FIELD
 Know which wells & waters have higher NORM potential. Low
concentration NORM is present everywhere.
 The level of radioactivity in produced water is normally very low and is
safe to handle. NORM is usually only a danger if it is concentrated.

Source What is Affected? Cause Prevention

Scale (BaSO4 Water tanks, separators, Substitution of Scale inhibitor
or SrSO4) downhole or surface pipe, radionuclide ions into the application.
wellheads, valves. structure of specific scales
Sludge or Tanks, separators, filter Concentration of debris, Avoid
sediment bags or cartridges, scale crystals & solids to concentrating this
flocculation waste. which radionuclides attach. waste.
Treatment Reject fluids from heat Concentration of a stream Avoid
reject exchangers, centrifuges of fluid when NORM concentrating this
streams and evaporators. condenses or is trapped. waste.
Debris in pipe Soil contamination Pipe cleaning. No accumulation
yards – clean & dispose.

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 OLDER FIELDS HAD HIGHER NORM – LONGER
TIME TO ACCUMULATE?

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 NORM PATHWAY INTO OIL & GAS WASTE

 NORM primarily accumulates in O & G waste when

radium is dissolved and carried to surface by
produced water.
 Radium is concentrated in scale and sludge when
precipitated with Ba-, Sr-, or Ca-SO4.
 NORM also accumulates in gas processing facilities
when radon decays to lead210.
 Radon decay elements accumulate on inner surface
of gas processing piping (propane-ethane processing)

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 WHAT IS THE HAZARD?

 Direct exposure to alpha particles through ingestion and

inhalation.
 Direct exposure to beta particles by contact of materials
from inside tanks.
 Breathing Radon gas for extended periods.
 How?
 Breathing dust.
 Eating or drink fluids that have contacted alpha particles.
 Removing beta contamination.
 There are no documented chronic cases of solid NORM
(non-Radon) induced cancer.
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 RA MEASUREMENTS FROM VARIOUS FORMATIONS
226

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 TX NORM INSPECTION – CASE HISTORY

 In 2000, the Texas Railroad Commission surveyed

>600 leases.
 59 leases had surface equipment >59 mR/hr.
 Of 6000 measurements, 3.4% were above 50 mR/hr.
 Max reading was >1000 mR/hr.
 Water tanks, gun barrels and flow lines had highest
readings.

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 WHY DO PRODUCED WATERS HAVE LOW
ACTIVITY (COMMENTS FROM TBEG, 1995)
 The isotopes 226Ra and 228Ra produce most of the
radioactivity in oil and gas facilities.
 Because the half-lives of 226Ra and 228Ra are
geologically short (1,622 yr. and 6.7 yr., respectively),
Ra incorporated with sediments and original pore
water does not survive to be produced.
 (Isotopes in water migrating out of high RA activity
rocks decay quickly) – shale an exception?

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 WHERE SHOULD YOU EXPECT NORM?

 Older surface equipment and used pipe with barium or

strontium scales are prime candidates, HOWEVER:
 Only a few areas are affected by NORM,
 Some areas start with higher than normal radioactivity,
 Even moderate to low radionuclide levels can be inadvertently
concentrated to values above acceptable limits.
 Evaporation, settling of solids, centrifuges, filtration, sludge formation,
flocculation and precipitation all concentrate NORM.
 Some produced waters (and even some virgin drinking waters)
have higher than acceptable radioactivity values. The best
approach for produced waters is not to concentrate the waters or
solids from such waters.
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TOP – O&G NORM
Levels

Bottom – O&G Well

Locations
Gamma-ray radiation
levels exceeded natural
background radiation
levels at 42% of surface
sites.

Radium, Uranium,
Thorium and Potassium
isotopes are problems
when the isotopes are
concentrated in scale,
sludge and/or
sediment.

Markedly higher RA
was found in Gulf
Coast, northeast Texas,
southeast Illinois and
south-central Kansas.
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 WHAT DOES NORM LOOK LIKE?

 Solid NORM can be:

 Crystalline, brittle & thin, may flake, mostly in pipes and tanks.
 NORM scales are white to brown, and are typically calcium,
barium or strontium sulfates.
 NORM-rich sludge (tank bottoms) may have any appearance –
can only identify with inspection instruments.
 Evaporites and pipe cleaning residues (usually in pipe yards)
may be higher than background NORM.
 Radon-222 gas is colorless, but is short half life (3.8
days) and can form lead-210 films (gray or black) on
inside of pipe, valves, etc. in gas processing equipment.
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 NORM IN THE AIR
 Largest source is airborne Radon
 Emanates from ground (decay product of uranium)
 Short half-life, avoid areas where Radon can
concentrate and not disperse.
 Unevenly distributed – some areas much higher –
e.g. -Colorado.
 Avg inhaled dose is 1.26 mSv/yr. or 126 mRem/yr.
 Second leading cause of lung cancer after smoking.

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 HOW DO YOU IDENTIFY NORM?

 A trained person (8 hr...... NORM surveyor course) surveys

the area:
 Soil readings taken while walking slowly holding the probe a half-
inch off the ground.
 Readings of the background, generally taken with the probe at
waist high.
 Readings of tanks and mid level and at bottom at several points
around the tank with the probe about a half-inch from the tank
wall. Also check pipes, valves, pumps. Water knockouts, etc.
 Compare readings with background to determine hazard level.
 There is NORM everywhere and all materials have some level of
radioactivity.

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 WHAT DO YOU DO IF THE NORM READINGS
ARE OVER THE LIMIT?
 Tag or mark the equipment with the reading and
avoid maintenance that would disturb the materials.
 Do not have to take the equipment out of service
immediately in most cases.
 At a time when maintenance is scheduled, a licensed
NORM remediation company must decontaminate
the equipment.
 After the equipment is decontaminated, the
equipment may be returned to service, sold or reused
at another location (Texas rules)
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 MEASUREMENT DEVICES

 Geiger-counter; NORM survey Instrument

 Scintillation probe- Sodium Iodide crystal
 Pancake or Geiger-Mueller probe- mylar plastic cover

 Scintillation probe- (µR/hr) Measures Gamma

 Pancake or Geiger-Mueller probe- (cpm) measures
Alpha and Beta particles

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 LIMITS FROM TEXAS REGULATIONS
(LIMITS ARE ABOVE BACKGROUND)
Texas Limits (From RRC Website)
For Protection of the Public 100 milliRem/yr
For Radium in Drinking Water 5 pCi/liter
EPA suggested action level for Radon in residences 4 pCi/liter
Examples of radiation exposure levels
Terrestrial background TX Gulf Coast 60 milliRem/yr
Terrestrial background for Texas Panhandle 120 milliRem/yr
Medical X-ray 40 milliRem
Cosmic (sea level exposure) 35 milliRem/yr
Cosmic (10,000 ft elevation) 85 milliRems/yr

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 PPE AND BEST PRACTICES FOR ROUTINE WORK
 Standard PPE is usually adequate for operations outside of
confined areas or areas marked as high NORM readings.
 There is no relationship between radiation sources and H2S or
CO2.
 NORM readings in shale frac flowback water may be slightly
higher.
 Concentrated sediments (cuttings?) from shale flowback may
be higher in NORM.
 Avoid inhalation and ingestion routes of fluids, dust, smoke
and vapors from produced water tanks.
 Wash hands and face before eating.
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 CONCLUSIONS

 Don’t be afraid of NORM but do be aware of:

 places where elevated NORM might occur,
 route of contamination- inhalation & ingestion of NORM dusts, &
 how to prevent problems from NORM when it is present.
 NORM damage potential is sharply reduced by
 Limiting time of exposure near NORM
 Increasing distance between you and NORM
 Any effective shielding (a tank or pipe wall will stop alpha and
beta particles completely).
 Diluting and not concentrating the source (as in produced water)
 Avoiding ingesting or inhaling NORM particles.

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 SURVEY INSTRUMENTS FOR NORM
Common Type of Probe Type Energy Common Location
Isotope radiation Level
Radium-226 96% a, 4% g scintillation for g, Pipes, tanks, etc. from
produced water
pancake for a & b
concentration
Radium-228 100% b pancake for a & b Pipes, tanks, etc. from
produced water
concentration
Radon-222 pancake for a & b Builds up in areas of gas
stripping.
Lead-210 100% b pancake for a & b very low Dry gas processing

Bismuth-214 100% b pancake for a & b

Polonium-210 100% b pancake for a & b very low
Thorium-228 100% a pancake for a & b

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Anytime you see gamma radiation, you also have a and b.
 Avg effec dose.
Sources (NCRP, 2006) (µSv)/yr (mrem)/yr
Inhaled (Radon & Decay prod.) 2290 229
Internally Depos. Radionuclides 310 31
Terrestrial Radiation 190 19
Cosmic Radiation 270 27
natural source 3100 310
Medical, industrial, etc. 3100 310
Total 6200 620

And…………………………
If you smoke, add 1300 mrem/yr (from radon
decay products)

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 URANIUM, THORIUM, POTASSIUM AND LEAD
RADIONUCLIDES ARE RESIDENT IN SEDIMENT
 Uranium238, Thorium232, Potassium40 nuclides
(unstable isotopes = radioactivity) are present in
rocks. (This is what the gamma-ray log measures)
 Isotopes decay into other elements and eventually
into stable (non-radioactive) materials.
 Uranium238 is a long-lived isotope that continuously
produces Radium226 – a comparatively short-lived
(1660 year half-life) element that may migrate in
produced water and plug itself into the structure of
forming scales or associate with other materials.
 Low concentration is typical, but if concentrated, can
gradually increase background radioactivity.

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