Genetic engineering
IGCSE
Definitions
• Biotechnology is the application of biological
organisms, systems or processes to
manufacturing and service industries.
• Genetic engineering involves the transfer of
genes from one organism to (usually) an
unrelated species
Genetic Engineering Examples
• Genetic engineering is changing the genetic material of an
organism by removing, changing or inserting individual genes
from another organism
• The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be
‘genetically modified’, or is described as a ‘transgenic organism’
• The DNA of the organism that now contains DNA from another
organism as well is known as ‘recombinant DNA’
• There are many examples of genetically modified organisms,
including:
• The gene for human insulin has been inserted into bacteria which
then produce human insulin which can be collected and purified
for medical use for diabetics
Genetic engineering
• Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically
modified to contain a gene from a bacterium that produces a poison
that kills insects, making them resistant to insect pests such as
caterpillars. Cotton plants have been genetically modified so that
they produce a substance called Bt which is toxic to insects. Insect
pests such as the cotton ball weevil, are killed if they eat the cotton
plants. This reduces the use of pesticides.
• Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them
resistant to certain herbicides (chemicals that kill plants), meaning
that when the herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and
does not affect the crop plant. For example soya plants have been
genetically modified so that they are not harmed when a herbicide
called glyphosate is sprayed onto them.
Insertion genes into rice to produce Vitamin
A
• Some crops have been genetically modified to produce
additional vitamins, eg ‘golden rice’ contains genes
from another plant and a bacterium which make the
rice grains produce a chemical that is turned into
vitamin A in the human body, which could help prevent
deficiency diseases in certain areas of the world.
• Severe vitamin A deficiency can cause blindness and is
thought to kill more than 1 million people per year
• Carotene Vitamin A ( retinol)
• Process of Genetic Engineering
• The gene that is to be inserted is located in
the original organism (for example, this could
be the gene for human insulin)
• Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the
required gene, leaving it with ‘sticky ends’ (a
short section of unpaired bases)
• A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same
restriction enzyme leaving it with
corresponding sticky ends (plasmids are
circles of DNA found inside bacterial cells)
Restriction enzymes
• Restriction endonuclease enzymes cut DNA
strands at specific sequences to form ‘sticky ends’
• The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined
together by DNA ligase enzyme
• If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends
(because they have been cut by the same
restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to
form a single, unbroken molecule of DNA
BACTERIAL PLASMIDS
STEPS IN PRODUCING INSULIN BY GENETIC
ENGINEERING
• Human cells with genes for healthy insulin are selected.
• A chromosome (a length of DNA) is removed from the cell.
• The insulin gene is cut from the chromosome using restriction endonuclease
enzyme.
• A suitable bacterial cell is selected. Some of its DNA is in the form of circular
plasmids.
• All the plasmids are removed from the bacterial cell.
• The plasmids are cut open using the same restriction endonuclease enzyme.
• The human insulin gene is inserted into the plasmids using ligase enzyme.
• The plasmid are returned to the bacterial cell (only one is shone in the
diagram).
• The bacterial cell is allowed to reproduce in a fermenter. All the cells
produced contain plasmids with the human insulin gene.
HOW GENETIC ENGINEERING HAS BEEN USED
TO PRODUCE BACTERIATHAT EXPRESS THE
HUMAN INSULIN GENE
