Cognitive errors

Cognitive Errors
•  Thinking errors are faulty patterns of thinking that are self-defeating

• They occur when the things you are thinking do not match up with
reality.

• This is sometimes also referred to as cognitive distortions.

• This happens when an individual applies a general conclusion based
on a single incident or a single piece of evidence to future events.
(Jumping to Conclusions).

• The hallmark of this cognitive distortion is the belief that one knows

exactly what another person is feeling and thinking and why they act
the way they do
• “I have the worst luck in the entire world.“

• “I just failed that math test. I’m no good at school, and I might as well
quit.“

• “She’s late. It’s raining. She has hydroplaned and her car is upside
down in a ditch.“
• Research suggests that people develop cognitive distortions as a way
of coping with adverse life events. The more prolonged and severe
those adverse events are, the more likely it is that one or more
cognitive distortions will form.
• One early theory even suggests that human beings might have
developed cognitive distortions as a kind of evolutionary survival
method.
• In other words, stress could cause people to adapt their thinking in
ways that are useful for their immediate survival. But these thoughts
aren’t rational or healthy long-term.
• In the 1960s, psychiatrist Aaron Beck pioneered research on cognitive distortions
in his development of a treatment method known as cognitive behavioral therapy.
• All-or-Nothing Thinking / Polarized Thinking. ...
• Overgeneralization. ...
• Mental Filter. ...
• Disqualifying the Positive. ...
• Jumping to Conclusions – Mind Reading. ...
• Jumping to Conclusions – Fortune Telling. ...
• Magnification (Catastrophizing) or Minimization. ...
• Emotional Reasoning
 Polarized Thinking
• Sometimes called all-or-nothing, or black and white thinking, this
distortion occurs when people habitually think in extremes.

• When you’re convinced that you’re either destined for success or

doomed to failure, that the people in your life are either angelic or
evil, you’re probably engaging in polarized thinking.

• This kind of distortion is unrealistic and often unhelpful because most

of the time reality exists somewhere between the two extremes.
 Overgeneralization
• When people overgeneralize, they reach a conclusion about one event
and then incorrectly apply that conclusion across the board.

• For example, you make a low score on one math test and conclude that
you’re hopeless at math in general. You have a negative experience in
one relationship and develop a belief that you just aren’t good at
relationships at all.

• Overgeneralization has been associated with post-traumatic stress

disorder and other anxiety disorders.
 Mental Filtering
• Another distorted thought pattern is the tendency to ignore positives
and focus exclusively on negatives.
• Interpreting circumstances using a negative mental filter is not only
inaccurate, it can worsen anxiety and depression symptoms.
• Researchers have found that having a negative perspective of yourself
and your future can cause feelings of hopelessness.

• These thoughts may become extreme enough to trigger suicidal

thoughts.
 Discounting the Positive ones
• Like mental filters, discounting the positive involves a negative bias in
thinking.
• People who tend to discount the positive don’t ignore or overlook
something positive. Instead, they explain it away as a fluke or sheer luck.
• Instead of acknowledging that a good outcome is the result of skill, smart
choices, or determination, they assume that it must be an accident or
some type of anomaly.
• When people believe they have no control over their circumstances, it
can reduce motivation and cultivate a sense of “learned helplessness.”
 Mind reading
• When people assume they know what others are thinking, they’re
resorting to mind reading.
• It can be hard to distinguish between mind reading and empathy —
the ability to perceive and understand what others may be feeling.
• To tell the difference between the two, it might be helpful to consider
all the evidence, not just the evidence that confirms your suspicions
or beliefs.
• At least one study has found that mind reading is more common
among children than among adolescents or adults and is associated
with anxiety.
 “Should” statements
• When people find themselves thinking in terms of what “should” and
“ought” to be said or done, it’s possible that a cognitive distortion is
at work.
• It’s rarely helpful to chastise yourself with what you “should” be able
to do in a given situation. “Should” and “ought” statements are often
used by the thinker to take on a negative view of their life.
• These types of thoughts are often rooted in internalized family or
cultural expectations which might not be appropriate for an
individual.
• Such thoughts can diminish your self-esteem and raise anxiety levels.
 Catastrophizing
• This distorted type of thinking leads people to dread or assume the worst
when faced with the unknown. When people catastrophize, ordinary
worries can quickly escalate.
• For instance, an expected check doesn’t arrive in the mail. A person who
catastrophizes may begin to fear it will never arrive, and that as a
consequence it won’t be possible to pay rent and the whole family will be
evicted.
• It’s easy to dismiss catastrophizing as a hysterical over-reaction, but
people who have developed this cognitive distortion may have
experienced repeated adverse events — like chronic pain or childhood
trauma — so often that they fear the worst in many situations.
 Personalization
• One of the most common errors in thinking is taking things personally
when they’re not connected to or caused by you at all.
• You may be engaging in personalization when you blame yourself for
circumstances that aren’t your fault, or are beyond your control.
• Another example is when you incorrectly assume that you’ve been
intentionally excluded or targeted.
• Personalization has been associated with heightened anxiety and
depression.
 Emotional reasoning
• Emotional reasoning is the false belief that your emotions are the
truth — that the way you feel about a situation is a reliable indicator
of reality.
• While it’s important to listen to, validate, and express emotion, it’s
equally important to judge reality based on rational evidence.
• Researchers have found that emotional reasoning is a common
cognitive distortion. It’s a pattern of thinking that’s used by people
with and without anxiety or depression.
• How can you change these distortions? 
• The good news is that cognitive distortions can be corrected over time.
• Here are some steps you can take if you want to change thought patterns that may not be
helpful:

• Identify the troublesome thought

• When you realize a thought is causing anxiety or dampening your mood, a good first step is
to figure out what kind of distorted thinking is taking place.
• To better understand how your thoughts affect your emotions and behavior, you may want
to consider reading “Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy” by clinical psychologist Dr.
David Burns.
•.
• Try reframing the situation

• Look for shades of gray, alternative explanations, objective evidence,

and positive interpretations to expand your thinking.

• You might find it helpful to write down your original thought, followed
by three or four alternative interpretations
• Perform a cost-benefit analysis
• People usually repeat behaviors that deliver some benefit.
• You might find it helpful to analyze how your thought patterns have
helped you cope in the past. Do they give you a sense of control in
situations where you feel powerless? Do they allow you to avoid
taking responsibility or taking necessary risks?
• You can also ask yourself what engaging in cognitive distortion costs
you. Weighing the pros and cons of your thought patterns could
motivate you to change them.
 Consider cognitive behavioral therapy
• Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a widely recognized form of talk therapy in
which people learn to identify, interrupt, and change unhealthy thinking
patterns.
• If you’d like some guidance in identifying and changing distorted thinking, you
might find this type of therapy useful.
• CBT usually focuses on specific goals. It generally takes place for a predetermined
number of sessions and may take a few weeks to a few months to see results.
• Look for a therapist who’s properly certified and licensed in the state where you
live. Your therapist should be trained in CBT. Try to find a therapist who has
experience treating your type of thinking pattern or issue.
• The bottom line
• Cognitive distortions are habitual ways of thinking that are often
inaccurate and negatively biased.
• Cognitive distortions usually develop over time in response to adverse
events. There are at least 10 common distorted thinking patterns that
have been identified by researchers.
• If you’re ready to tackle a cognitive distortion, you may want to try some
of the methods found in cognitive behavioral therapy. This type of therapy
has been successful in helping people identify cognitive distortions and
retrain themselves to look at the world in a clearer, more rational way.
 Six Thinking Hats
• Looking at a Decision From All Points of View
• What is your instinctive approach to decision making?

• If you're naturally optimistic, then chances are you don't always consider
potential downsides. Similarly, if you're very cautious or have a risk-averse
outlook, you might not focus on opportunities that could open up.
• Often, the best decisions come from changing the way that you think about
problems, and examining them from different viewpoints.
• "Six Thinking Hats" can help you to look at problems from different perspectives,
but one at a time, to avoid confusion from too many angles crowding your
thinking.
• It's also a powerful decision-checking technique in group situations,
as everyone explores the situation from each perspective at the same
time.
• Six Thinking Hats was created by Edward de Bono, and published in
his 1985 book of the same name. You can now find it in a new
edition.
• It forces you to move outside your habitual thinking style, and to look
at things from a number of different perspectives. This allows you to
get a more rounded view of your situation.
• You can often reach a successful solution or outcome from a rational,
positive viewpoint, but it can also pay to consider a problem from
other angles.

• For example, you can look at it from an emotional, intuitive, creative

or risk management viewpoint. Not considering these perspectives
could lead you to underestimate people's resistance to your plans, fail
to make creative leaps, or ignore the need for essential contingency
plans.
 How to Use the Six Thinking Hats Model
• You can use Six Thinking Hats in meetings or on your own. In meetings, it has
the benefit of preventing any confrontation that may happen when people
with different thinking styles discuss a problem, because every perspective is
valid.

• Each "Thinking Hat" is a different style of thinking. These are explained

below:
• White Hat: with this thinking hat, you focus on the available data. Look at
the information that you have, analyze past trends, and see what you can
learn from it. Look for gaps in your knowledge, and try to either fill them or
take account of them.
• Red Hat: "wearing" the Red Hat, you look at problems using your
intuition, gut reaction, and emotion. Also, think how others could
react emotionally. Try to understand the responses of people who do
not fully know your reasoning.
• Black Hat: using Black Hat thinking, look at a decision's potentially
negative outcomes. Look at it cautiously and defensively. Try to see
why it might not work. This is important because it highlights the
weak points in a plan. It allows you to eliminate them, alter them, or
prepare contingency plans to counter them.
• Yellow Hat: this hat helps you to think positively. It is the optimistic
viewpoint that helps you to see all the benefits of the decision and
the value in it. Yellow Hat thinking helps you to keep going when
everything looks gloomy and difficult.

• Green Hat: the Green Hat represents creativity. This is where you

develop creative solutions to a problem. It is a freewheeling way of
thinking, in which there is little criticism of ideas. (You can explore a
range of creativity tools to help you.)
• Blue Hat: this hat represents process control. It's the hat worn by
people chairing meetings, for example. When facing difficulties
because ideas are running dry, they may direct activity into Green Hat
thinking. When contingency plans are needed, they will ask for Black
Hat thinking.