Komar University of Science and Technology

Civil Engineering Department

Engineering Surveying

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS

Lecture#2
Fall 2021
Sulaymaniyah, IRAQ

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 Linear Measurement

The horizontal distance between points,

projected onto a horizontal plane, is required to
be measured in order to prepare plan or map of
the area surveyed.

Methods of making linear measurements:

1. Direct methods - tape

2. Optical methods – leveling
3. Electronic distance measurement
(E.D.M) methods – total station

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 Methods of Linear Distance Measurement
1. DIRECT METHODS

In the direct method, the distance is actually measured during field work
using a chain or a tape. This is the most commonly used method for linear
measurements.

a. Pacing:

It is a quick method for estimating distances. One simply walks from one point
to another, counting steps. Knowing the length of one's step allows a quick
estimation of the distance.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement

A distance between two points can be

approximately be determined by counting
the number of paces and multiplying it with
average length of the pace.

Passometer: It is a small
instrument which counts the
number of paces.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement
b. Odometer and Speed Measurement:

An Odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of known

circumference to a distance. Lengths measured by Odometer on a vehicle are
suitable for some preliminary surveys in route location work. Odometer
wheels use different units on the odometers. Insure you know the measuring
units before you start to use the wheel.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement
c. Chaining and Taping

 Chaining is a term which is used to denote measuring distance either with

the help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making
direct measurements.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement
 Taping involves measurement of the distance with tapes, either by placing it
on the ground or sometimes by getting it suspended between points. The
precision of distance measured with tapes depends upon the degree of
refinement with which measurements are taken.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement
2. OPTICAL METHODS

In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distance is not
actually measured in field but it is computed indirectly. The instrument used
for making observations is called tachometer.

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Methods of Linear Distance Cont.
Measurement
3. E.D.M. METHODS

Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed

quite recently. These are practically replacing the
distances chains measurement of or tapes. There is a
using
instruments and depending
large
upon thevariety
precision
of required
such the
instruments
should be used.

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 Apparatus Used in
Chaining
1. Chain or Tape:

 Tape types: Metallic tape, Steel tape

& Invar tape.

 The surveying chain is 66 feet long

and divided into 100 links each link
equal to 0.66 foot.

 Nowadays, tape is been used

instead of Chain because it is metric
system and more accurate. This
metric Tape is available in length of 5,
10, 15, 20, 30, 50, and 100 meters.

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Apparatus Used in Cont.
Chaining

2. Arrows:
For transition measurement. The
height is (400mm), Diameter of top is
(50mm), and ∅for steel is (4 mm).

3. Pegs:
Steel or wooden pegs are used to
mark the positions of the stations. The
height is (15 cm).

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Apparatus Used in Cont.
Chaining

4. Ranging rods:
For temporary marking. They have a length of either 2m or 3m,
the 2m length being more common. They are painted in
alternative bands of either black and white or red and white.

5. Plumb bob:
while chaining along sloping ground is required to
transfer the points to the ground. It is also used to
make ranging poles vertical and to transfer points
from a line ranger to the ground. In addition, it is used
as centering aid in Theodolite.
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 Rangin
g
 There are two cases for measurement distance by Tape: First: When the
distance to be measured is less than the tape length, the case is normal
and the measurement will be done effortlessly.
 Second: When the distance to be measured is more than a tape length, a
straight line is required to be laid between the points/ stations along which
measurements are to be carried out. The process of laying out a straight
line between points is known as RANGING.

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Rangin Cont.
g
a. Direct Ranging
When the two ends of the survey lines are interring visible. In such cases, ranging can
either do by eye or through some optical instrument

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Rangin Cont.
g
b. Indirect Ranging (reciprocal ranging)
This method is used when both ends of the survey line are not interring visible, either
due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between them. We choose two
points C and D where from C we can see A and D, also from D we can see B and C.

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 Distance Measurement on a Sloping
Ground
1.DIRECT METHOD:
For all plotting works horizontal distances between the points are required. It
is therefore necessary either to directly measure the horizontal distance
between the points or to measure the sloping distance and reduce it to
horizontal as explained in the figure below
𝐷=𝐿1+𝐿2+𝐿3+𝐿4

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Distance Measurement on a Sloping Cont.
Ground

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Distance Measurement on a Sloping Cont.
Ground
2. INDIRECT METHOD:
Total Distance = D1+D2
D1=L1∗cosθ1 and D2=L2∗cosθ2"
The slope of the lines can be measured with
the help of Clinometers

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Distance Measurement on a Sloping Cont.
Ground
Clinometers are simple shaped and consist of:

 A line of sight.
 A graduated arc.
 A light plumb bob with along thread suspended at the center.

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 How to Draw a Perpendicular
Line?
1. WHERE THE POINT IS ON THE LINE

a. By 3-4-5 Method:

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How to Draw a Perpendicular Cont.
Line?
b. By Arc Method:

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How to Draw a Perpendicular Cont.
Line?
2. Where the point is outside the line:

a. By chord bisection method

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How to Draw a Perpendicular Cont.
Line?
b. By optical square &
prism

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 THANK YOU
QUESTIONS AND COMMENTS
are
Warmly Welcomed

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