Chapter 3

The cellular level of

organisation
 Introduction

The purpose of the chapter is to:

• Introduce the parts of a cell
• Discuss the importance of the plasma membrane
• Discuss the components of the cytoplasm
• Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis
• Understand the effects ageing has on the cell
 Parts of a cell

• The cell can be subdivided into 3 parts:

1. Plasma (cell) membrane
2. Cytoplasm
• Cytosol
• Organelles
3. Nucleus
• Chromosomes
• Genes
Parts of a cell

Figure 3.1
 The plasma membrane

• The plasma membrane is a flexible yet sturdy barrier

that surrounds and contains the cytoplasm of the cell

Figure 3.2
 Membrane proteins

• Two types of membrane proteins are

– Integral (also called transmembrane) proteins
– Peripheral proteins
 Functions of membrane proteins

– Membrane proteins
can serve a variety of
functions
– The different proteins
help determine many
of the functions of
the cell membrane

Figure 3.3
 Membrane fluidity

• Membranes are fluid structures because most of the

membrane lipids and many of the membrane
proteins move easily in the bilayer
– Membrane lipids and proteins are mobile in their
own half of the bilayer
• Cholesterol serves to stabilise the membrane and
reduce membrane fluidity
 Membrane permeability

• Plasma membranes are selectively permeable

– The lipid bilayer is always permeable to small,
nonpolar, uncharged molecules
– Transmembrane proteins that act as channels or
transporters increase the permeability of the
membrane
– Macromolecules are only able to pass through the
plasma membrane by vesicular transport
 Gradients across the plasma membrane

• A concentration gradient is the difference in the

concentration of a chemical between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other
• An electrical gradient is the difference in
concentration of ions between one side of the
plasma membrane and the other
• Together, these gradients make up an
electrochemical gradient
 Transport across the plasma membrane

• Transport processes that move substances across the

cell membrane are:
– Passive processes
• Simple diffusion
• Facilitated diffusion
• Osmosis
– Active processes
• Active transport
• Vesicular transport
 Passive processes: Simple diffusion

• Diffusion is influenced by:

• Steepness of the concentration gradient
• Temperature
• Mass of diffusion substance
• Surface area
• Diffusion distance

Figure 3.4
 Facilitated diffusion

• Transmembrane proteins help solutes that are too

polar or too highly charged move through the lipid
bilayer
• The processes involved are:
– Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
– Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

Figure 3.6
Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

Figure 3.7
Diffusion: A comparison

Figure 3.5
 Osmosis

• The net movement of a solvent through a

selectively permeable membrane from an area of
high concentration to an area of low
concentration

Figure 3.8
 Tonicity

• Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution

influences the shape of body cells

Figure 3.9
 Active processes: Primary active
transport
• Energy derived from ATP changes the shape of a
transporter protein which pumps a substance across
a plasma membrane against its concentration
gradient

Figure 3.10
 Secondary active transport

• Energy stored (in a hydrogen or sodium

concentration gradient) is used to drive other
substances against their own concentration gradients

Figure 3.11
Active transport in vesicles: Receptor
-mediated endocytosis

Figure 3.12
Active transport in vesicles:
Phagocytosis

Figure 3.13
Active transport in vesicles: Bulk phase
endocytosis (Pinocytosis)

Figure 3.14
 Active transport in vesicles: Exocytosis &
transcytosis
• Exocytosis – membrane-enclosed secretory vesicles
fuse with the plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular fluid
• Transcytosis – a combination of endocytosis and
exocytosis used to move substances from one side of
a cell, across it, and out the other side
A comparison of transport types
A comparison of transport types
 Cytoplasm

• Cytosol is also known as the intracellular fluid portion

of the cytoplasm
• Organelles are the specialised structures that have
specific shapes and perform specific functions
Cytoskeleton

Figure 3.15
Centrosome/Centrioles

Figure 3.16
Cilia and flagella

Figure 3.17
Ribosomes

Figure 3.18
Endoplasmic reticulum

Figure 3.19
Golgi complex

Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Lysosomes

Figure 3.22
 Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are structures that are similar in shape

to lysosomes, but are smaller and contain enzymes
that use oxygen to oxidise (break down) organic
substances
 Proteasomes

• Proteasomes are barrel-shaped structures that

destroy unneeded, damaged, or faulty proteins by
cutting long proteins into smaller peptides

Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Mitochondria

Figure 3.23
Nucleus

Figure 3.24
 Nucleus

• The nucleus contains the cell’s hereditary units,

called genes, which are arranged in chromosomes

Figure 3.25
Gene expression

Figure 3.26
 Protein synthesis: Transcription

• Transcription occurs
in the nucleus and is
the process by which
genetic information
encoded in DNA is
copied onto a strand
of RNA to direct
protein synthesis

Figure 3.27
 Protein synthesis: Translation

• Translation occurs in the nucleus and is the process

of reading the mRNA nucleotide sequence to
determine the amino acid sequence of the newly
formed protein

Figure 3.28
Protein synthesis during transcription

Figure 3.29
 Cell division

• Cell division is a process by which cells reproduce

themselves
– Cell cycle

Figure 3.30
 Interphase

• G1 phase
• S
• G2 phase Figure 3.31
 Mitotic phase: Prophase

• During prophase chromatin condenses into

chromosomes

Figure 3.30
 Mitotic phase: Metaphase

• During metaphase centromeres of chromosomes line

up at the metaphase plate

Figure 3.30
 Mitotic phase: Anaphase

• During anaphase centromeres of chromosomes split

and sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of
the cell

Figure 3.30
 Mitotic phase: Telophase

• During telophase the mitotic spindle dissolves,

chromosomes regain their chromatin appearance,
and a new nuclear membrane forms

Figure 3.30
 Cytokinesis

• During cytokinesis a
cleavage furrow
forms and eventually
the cytoplasm of the
parent cell fully splits
– When this is
complete, interphase
begins

Figure 3.30
 Control of cell destiny

• 3 possible destinies:
1. Remain alive and functioning without dividing
2. Grow and divide
3. Die
Reproductive cell division: Meiosis I

Figure 3.33
Reproductive cell division: Meiosis II

Figure 3.33 cont.

Cellular diversity

Figure 3.35
 Ageing and cells

• As we age:
– Our cells gradually deteriorate in their ability
function normally and in their ability to respond to
environmental stresses
– The numbers of our body cells decreases
– We lose the integrity of the extracellular
components of our tissues