Earthquakes

Dr V.Shreedhara

10-11-2021
 What are Earthquakes?
• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy. Energy radiates in all directions
from its source, the focus . Energy moves like waves.
Seismographs record the event
• The shaking or trembling caused by the sudden release of
energy, usually associated with faulting or breaking of
rocks.
• Earthquakes can be caused by:
– 1. Strain built up along boundaries between plates
– 2. Eruption of a volcano
– 3. Collapse of a cavern
– 4. Impact of a meteorite
– 5. Reservoir induced
– 6. Explosive materials
 TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
• Tectonic Earthquake
- These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane .
• Volcanic Earthquake
- Are confined to areas of Active volcano
• Collapse Earthquake
- Intensive mining activity , sometimes the roof of underground mines
collapse causing minor tremors
• Explosive Earthquakes
- Ground shaking may occur due to explosion of chemical or nuclear
Devices such tremors are called explosive earthquake.
• Reservoir Induced Earthquake
- The earthquake that occur in the areas of large reservoir are
referred as reservoir induced earthquake
 A FAULT IS…
• A break in the lithosphere along which movement has occurred.
Most earthquakes occur in this way.
– Friction between plates prevents them from moving, so strain
builds up. The rock deforms. Eventually, the strain becomes
great enough that the rock moves, and returns to normal shape.
This causes an earthquake (elastic rebound theory). Explains how
energy is stored in rocks
– Rocks bend until the strength of the rock is exceeded
– Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an undeformed
shape
– Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the fault
 What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?

• Explains how energy is

stored in rocks
– Rocks bend until the
strength of the rock
is exceeded
– Rupture occurs and
the rocks quickly
rebound to an
undeformed shape
– Energy is released in
waves that radiate
outward from the
fault
 Why do earthquakes occur?
• Fractures, faults
Energy released
and propagates in
all directions as
seismic waves
causing
earthquakes
epicenter
focus
• Focus: the point at which the rock first
breaks and moves in an earthquake. Below
the surface.
• Epicenter: the point on the earth’s surface
directly above the focus.
 definitions
• Earthquake = Vibration of the Earth produced by the
rapid release of energy

• Seismic waves = Energy moving outward from the

focus of an earthquake

• Focus= location of initial slip on the fault; where the

earthquake origins

• Epicenter= spot on Earth’s surface directly above the

focus
 SEISMICITY
Earthquakes occur due to motion along faults
Normal Fault Reverse Fault (thrust)

Cross-section (vertical) view

 Normal Fault Quake - Nevada
Reverse Fault Quake - Japan
DEMO – Types of faults

Strike Slip Fault Quake - California

 Where Do Earthquakes Occur and How Often?
Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the
1)oceanic and continental plate
2) Along faults: normal, reverse, transform
~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
– most of these result from convergent margin activity
– ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
– remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on spreading ridge
centers
– more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are recorded each
year
 What are Seismic Waves?

• Response of material to the

arrival of energy fronts released
by rupture
• Two types:
– Body waves
• P and S
– Surface waves
• R and L
Body Waves: P and S waves
• Body waves
– P or primary waves
• fastest waves
• travel through solids,
liquids, or gases
• compressional wave,
material movement is
in the same direction
as wave movement
– S or secondary waves
• slower than P waves
• travel through solids
only
• shear waves - move
material
perpendicular to
wave movement
 P and S waves

Demo: P and S waves

Smaller amplitude than surface (L) waves, but faster, P arrives first, then S, then L
 Primary Waves
• Called P waves
• Compression waves- squeeze and stretch
rock (Push and Pull)
• Can travel through any material- solid,
liquids, and gases
• Travel the fastest
 Secondary Waves
• S waves
• Side to Side movement.
• Can travel only through solid material, not
liquids or gases
• Travel a little more than half the speed of P
waves
 Surface Waves
• Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s Surface or
Travel just below or along the ground’s surface
• Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side
movement
• Especially damaging to buildings
• When P and S waves reach the surface, they make
Surface waves
• There are two types,
types Love waves and Rayleigh waves
• Cause lots of damage
 EARTHQUAKE SHADOW ZONES
• The shadow zone is the
area of the earth from
angular distances of
104 to 140
• The shadow zone results
from S waves being
stopped entirely by the
liquid core and P waves
being bent (refracted) by
the liquid core. 
•  From the lack of S waves
and a great slowing of the
P wave velocity (by about
40%) it was deduced that
the outer core is made of
liquid.
 Seismic waves: properties
• Velocity: function of the physical properties of the rock
the wave is traveling through
– Velocity increases with rock density
– Velocity changes when passing from one material to
another (increases/decreases)
– Liquids: S-waves do not get transmitted through
liquid; P-waves slow down

• Why is this important?

–If we know the velocity of the wave, we can infer
the type of rock it traveled through- that’s how we map
the interior of the Earth!!!
 Measuring earthquakes
• Seismometers:
instruments that detect
seismic waves
• Seismographs
Record intensity, height
and amplitude of seismic
waves
 The S-P Time
Interval is the time
between the start of
the p wave and the s
wave.
Note how much bigger the surface waves are
 How is an Earthquake’s Epicenter Located?

Time-distance graph showing

the average travel times for P-
and S-waves. The farther
away a seismograph is from
the focus of an earthquake,
the longer the interval
between the arrivals of the P-
and S- waves
 Locating Earthquakes
• Because P waves and S waves travel at different
speeds,
speeds the difference in their arrival times can be
used to determine the DISTANCE away an
earthquake occurred.
• Measure time between P and S waves on a
seismogram
• Need at least 3 seismographs
 Locating Earthquakes
• If you know the distance an earthquake
occurred from at least three different seismic
stations, you can determine the location of
the epicenter.
• Triangulation:
Using the S-P
time interval
data from 3
stations to
determine the
epicenter
 Locating the epicentre:
X, Y and Z are seismograph stations

280 km

Y
220 km X

epicentre Z

150 km
 Earthquake size: two ways to
measure
1) Magnitude: Richter Scale
 Richter magnitude - concept introduced by Charles Richter in
1935. Measure the interval (in seconds) between the arrival of
the first P and S waves. Measures the energy released by fault
movement related to the maximum amplitude of the S wave
measured from the seismogram
• Logarithmic-scale; quantitative measure
• For each whole number there is a 31.5 times increase
in energy
• eg. an increase from 5 to 7 on the Richter scale = an increase
in energy of 992 times!!

Use seismograms from at least three geographic

locations to locate epicentre by triangulation
2) Intensity: Mercalli Scale:

– What did you feel?

– Assigns an intensity or rating to measure an earthquake at
a particular location (qualitative)
– I (not felt) to XII (buildings nearly destroyed)
– Measures the destructive effect

• Intensity is a function of:

• Energy released by fault
• Geology of the location
• Surface substrate: can magnify shock waves e.g.
Mexico City (1985) and San Francisco (1989)
 Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes

Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually

Great 8 and higher 1¹
Major 7 - 7.9 17 ²
Strong 6 - 6.9 134 ²
Moderate 5 - 5.9 1319 ²
13,000
Light 4 - 4.9
(estimated)
130,000
Minor 3 - 3.9
(estimated)
1,300,000
Very Minor 2 - 2.9
(estimated)
¹ Based on observations since 1900.
² Based on observations since 1990.
 Earthquake damage
 Earthquakes don’t kill; buildings do
• Landslides - Earthquake's triggered; occur in
hilly/mountainous areas
• Liquefaction - water-saturated, unconsolidated materials
flow
• Tsunami (seismic sea waves; "tidal" waves) - can grow up
to 65 m
• Ground Failure - constructions collapse
• Fires - from broken gas and electrical lines
The Economics and Societal Impacts of EQs

Damage in Oakland, CA,

• Building collapse 1989
• Fire
• Tsunami
• Ground failure
 Liquefaction
Liquefaction
water-saturated sediments lose all cohesion
 Effects of Earthquakes
Landslides
– 1958 Alaskan  Lituya Bay  local wave
sloshed up 500 m
– 1970 Peru
– 1989 Loma Prieta
Tsunamis: Can be extremely dangerous and
extensive
Tsunamis, or seismic sea waves , Destructive waves
called “tidal waves”
Result from “push” of underwater fault or undersea
landslide
In open ocean height is > 1 meter
In shallow coast water wave can be > 30 meters
Very destructive
Honolulu officials know exactly how
long it takes a Tsunami to reach
them from anywhere
Hazards:
Ground Motion
 Movement along fault and backlash in elastic
zone (~ ¼ – ½ mile)
 Surface waves
Damage patterns may be complex:
 Reflection and refraction: may focus energy
 Characteristic frequencies of structures
 Amplification by sediments
 Effects of Earthquakes
Fires
– Rupture electrical, gas, & water lines
 Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World

Date Location Deaths Magnitude Comments

May 31, 1970 Peru 66,000 7.9 $530,000,000

damage, great rock
slide, floods.
July 27, 1976 China,  255,000 7.5 Estimated death toll as
Tangshan (official) high as 655,000.
Sept 19, 1985 Mexico 9500 8.0   Estimated death toll as
Michoacan (official) high as 30,000
Old lake bed magnified
shock waves by 500%
2001 Jan 26 India 20,023 7.7 166,836 injured,
600,000 homeless
.
2004 Dec 26 Sumatra 283,106 9.0 Deaths from earthquake
and tsunami
 Earthquake prediction
• 2000 - British researcher argues that prediction of main
shock impossible at present; immediate goal should be
prediction of aftershock location and magnitude.
• Probabilities, yes , but prediction, no

• Long-range forecasts
• Calculates probability of a certain magnitude
earthquake occurring over a given time period
• Short-range predictions
• Ongoing research, presently not much success
 Earthquake risk and prediction

• Long-term methods Real-time 24 Hour

Forecast

1) seismic hazard maps

2) probability analysis
based on:
- historical EQ records
- geologic EQ records
- slip-rate on active faults
- frequency and
magnitude of recent EQ's
Maps based on probability that a certain level of
ground motion will occur over a 50-year period

Large-scale map for USA

 Short-term predictions
1. Foreshocks: usually increase in magnitude

2. Ground deformation

3. Fluctuations in water well levels

4. Changes in local radio wave characteristics

5. Anomalous animal behavior???

Dogs bark, chickens don’t lay eggs, cattle & horses run
about, rats climb to power lines…
 EARTHQUAKE RISK
Identify areas of high risk (long-term prediction)
– Seismic hazard maps: US contoured for areas of high
risk (probability of ground motion)
– Main object: develop building codes, insurance rates,
emergency management
Earthquake risk map based on historic earthquake occurrences
 Response to earthquake hazards
2. Critical Facilities
– Schools, hospitals, police, fire stations, civil
defense, power stations, dams, evacuation routes
– Evaluate hazard, evaluate design, risk assessment
– Nuclear plants design based on “capable” faults
and “maximum credible earthquake”
 Response to earthquake hazards
3. Adjustments to Earthquake Activity
– Construction codes
– Utility siting
– Land-use planning
– Increase insurance and relief measures
– Individuals modify home and behavior
 Response to earthquake hazards
4. Earthquake warning systems (after event)
–  ~ 1 minute advanced warning since radio
waves faster than earthquake waves
 Preparedness
Buildings - site selection, design to code,
retrofit, upgrade codes;
Strengthen bridges, dams, pipelines;
Earthquake drills - houses, schools, search
& rescue;
Emergency planning - survival kits,
evacuation routes, fire prevention, utility
failures, communication alternatives,
education
Earthquake in Ethiopia
 Earth quake in Ethiopia
• According to a report published in 1999, a 6.5 magnitude earthquake,
which seismologist say could happen in areas of close proximity to Addis
Ababa, the country's major city, could cause as many as 4000-5000 deaths,
8000-10,000 injuries and a displacement of as many as 500,000 people and
a total damage in excess of 12 Billion Birr [1]. Addis Ababa itself is only 75-
100 kilometers away from the western edge of the Main Ethiopian Rift
Valley, which is a hotbed of tremors and active volcanoes. Some of
Ethiopia's major cities like Addis Ababa, Nazret, Dire Dawa and Awassa are
very near main fault lines such as the Wonji fault, the Nazret fault, the
Addis-Ambo-Ghedo fault, and the Fil Woha fault lines along which
numerous earthquakes of varying magnitude have occurred over the
years. Other cities like Arba Minch, Dessie, and Mekele are also located in
some of the most seismically active areas in the country. The presence of
the Fil Woha hot springs in the middle of Addis Ababa itself, for example,
is nature's reminder that the city lies on fault lines that have been slowly
building strains. It is the release of these strains accumulated over the
years that cause the phenomenon of earthquake.
Damaged brick masonry building in Kara Kore during Kara
Kore Earthquake - 1961
• With regard to the effect of the 1961 Kara Kore-Majete earthquake on Addis
Ababa, Gouin writes, "At Addis Ababa, some 200 km south of Kara Kore, the
first earth tremors were felt at breakfast time on 19 May (1961); many others
were felt off and on for at least 2 weeks. Their occurrence was followed by a
wave of rustling noises generated by the twisting of the corrugated iron roofing
sheets covering most houses. Some masonry structures cracked, partition walls
in reinforced concrete frame buildings were dislocated by shearing motion,
etc., especially along the Filowoha fault zone in the southern sector of the city.
At Africa Hall, a 7-story building under construction but whose frame-structure
was completed, the steel flagpoles on the roof were seen crisscrossing during
the tremors."
 Recent & Historical Earthquakes in Ethiopia
 374 Earthquakes occurred in Ethiopia since 1900.A few of
them listed below:
• 2017-08-25 05:20:30, 50 km West –north west of Dorra, Djibouti.
• 2017-01-27 16:29:22, 29 km south of Ziway, Ethiopia
• 2015-10-29 00:35:36, 20 km Northwest of Metahara, Ethiopia
2015-03-31 12:29:53 , 37 km South west of Butajira, Ethiopia
• 2014-12-29 16:09:52 32 k Northeast of Shashemene,
• 2014-12-13 22:37:19, 27 km East –sotheast of Asiata, Ethiopia
• 2014-08-22 08:42:29, 52 km East – northeast of Adigrat, Ethiopia.
• 2014-06-20 12:42:11 4.2 55km West of Were Ilu, Ethiopia

•
 Some of the recent significant earthquakes that have rocked the Rift Valley, the
Afar Plains and the Western Edge of the Rift Vall
 
Location Year Magnitude Distance of Epicenter from Addis (kms) ** Damage
 
•Langano 1906 6.8 110 Felt as far as Addis.

• Kara Kore 1961 6.7 150 Town of Majete destroyed. Kara Kore
seriously damaged.
 
•Central Afar Area 1969 Town of Serdo destroyed.
 
•Rift Valley Area 1987 6.2 200 Widely felt and widely-spread damage.
 
•Dobi [Central Afar] 1989 6.3 200 Several bridges damaged.
 
•Nazret 1993 6.0 (?) < 100 Injuries and damage in Nazret. Also felt in D. Zeit and
Addis. 
 
 First Test-15 marks
• Topic
1. Introduction
• Global environmental issues and Challenges
• Population- resources- environmental linkages
• Development – resources – sustainability
• Earth materials, systems and cycles
• Understanding geo-hazards
2. Interior of the Earth, Earthquake and their Effects
• Internal structure and composition of the Earth, Plate tectonic
• Origin and distribution of Earthquakes, tsunamis
• Measurement of earthquakes, earthquake magnitude, earthquake intensity,
• Effect of earthquake, Predicting earthquake and earthquake risks
,• The response to earthquake hazards, mitigation measures,
• Earthquake hazards in Ethiopia
Date 16-11-2021, Tuesday, Afternoon 2.00PM International Time