HAROLD KERZNER

PROJECT
MANAGEMENT
• CHAPTER 6: TIME AND STRESS
MANAGEMENT

• CHAPTER 7: CONFLICTS

• C H A P T E R 8 : S P E C I A L TO P I C S
“Time is the scarcest economic
resource. You cannot do
something about it. You cannot get
it back when its wasted”

- KN ASUNCION
 TIME
AND

STRESS
MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 6
Managing projects within time, cost, and performance is easier
said than done. The project management environment is extremely
turbulent, and is composed of numerous meetings, report writing,
conflict resolution, continuous planning and replanning,
communications with the customer, and crisis management. Ideally,
the effective project manager is a manager, not a doer, but in the “real
world,” project managers often compromise their time by doing both.
Disciplined time management is one of the keys to effective
project management. It is often said that if the project
manager cannot control his own time, then he will control
nothing else on the project.
UNDERSTANDING TIME MANAGEMENT

For most people, time is a resource that, when lost or

misplaced, is gone forever. For a project manager, however,
time is more of a constraint, and effective time management
principles must be employed to make it a resource.
Most executives prefer to understaff projects, in the mistaken belief
that the project manager will assume the additional workload. The
project manager may already be heavily burdened with meetings,
report preparation, internal and external communications, conflict
resolution, and planning/replanning for crises. And yet, most project
managers somehow manipulate their time to get the work done.
Experienced personnel soon learn to delegate tasks and to employ
effective time management principles.
 The following questions should help managers
identify problem areas:
Do you have trouble completing work within the allocated ● Are you accomplishing more or less than you were three
deadlines? months ago? Six months ago?

● How many interruptions are there each day? ● How difficult is it for you to say no?

● Do you have a procedure for handling interruptions? ● How do you approach detail work?

● If you need a large block of uninterrupted time, is it available? ● Do you perform work that should be handled by your
With or without subordinates?

overtime? ● Do you have sufficient time each day for personal interests?

● How do you handle drop-in visitors and phone calls? ● Do you still think about your job when away from the office?

● How is incoming mail handled? ● Do you make a list of things to do? If yes, is the list prioritized?

● Do you have established procedures for routine work? ● Does your schedule have some degree of flexibility?
The project manager who can deal with these
questions has a greater opportunity to convert time
from a constraint to a resource.
TIME ROBBERS
The most challenging problem facing the project manager is his
inability to say no. Consider the situation in which an employee
comes into your office with a problem. The employee may be sincere
when he says that he simply wants your advice but, more often than
not, the employee wants to take the monkey off of his back and put it
onto yours. The employee’s problem is now your problem.
HOW TO HANDLE TIME ROBBERS?
1. Screen out the problems with which you do not wish to get involved.
2. If the situation does necessitate your involvement, then you must make sure that when
the employee leaves your office, he realizes that the problem is still his, not yours.
3. If you find that the problem will require your continued attention, remind the
employee that all future decisions will be joint decisions and that the problem will still be
on the employee’s shoulders.
Once employees realize that they cannot put their problems on your shoulders, they learn
how to make their own decisions.
SITUATIONS THAT ROBS TIME
Incomplete work ● Day-to-day administration

● A job poorly done that must be done over ● Union grievances

● Telephone calls, mail, and email ● Having to explain “thinking” to superiors

● Lack of adequate responsibility and commensurate ● Too many levels of review

authority
● Casual office conversations
● Changes without direct notification/explanation
● Misplaced information
● Waiting for people
● Shifting priorities
● Failure to delegate, or unwise delegation
● Indecision at any level
● Poor retrieval systems

● Lack of information in a ready-to-use format

SITUATIONS THAT ROBS TIME
Procrastination ● Lack of a job description

● Setting up appointments ● Too many people involved in minor decision-making

● Too many meetings ● Lack of technical knowledge

● Monitoring delegated work ● Lack of authorization to make decisions

● Unclear roles/job descriptions ● Poor functional status reporting

● Executive meddling ● Work overload

● Budget adherence requirements ● Unreasonable time constraints

● Poorly educated customers ● Too much travel

● Not enough proven managers ● Lack of adequate project management tools

● Vague goals and objectives

SITUATIONS THAT ROBS TIME
● Departmental “buck passing” ● Dealing with unreliable subcontractors

● Company politics ● Personnel not willing to take risks

● Going from crisis to crisis ● Demand for short-term results

● Conflicting directives ● Lack of long-range planning

● Bureaucratic roadblocks (“ego”) ● Learning new company systems

● Empire-building line managers ● Poor lead time on projects

● No communication between sales and engineering ● Documentation (reports/red tape)

● Excessive paperwork ● Large number of projects

● Lack of clerical/administrative support ● Desire for perfection

SITUATIONS THAT ROBS TIME
● Lack of project organization

● Constant pressure

● Constant interruptions

● Shifting of functional personnel

● Lack of employee discipline

● Lack of qualified manpower

TIME MANAGEMENT FORMS
There are two basic forms that project managers and project
engineers can use for practicing better time management.
The first form is the “to do” pad. The second is the “daily calendar
log”.
The project manager or secretary prepares the list of things to do. The project
manager then decides which activities he must perform himself and assigns the
appropriate priorities.
THE “TO DO” PAD
THE DAILY CALENDAR LOG
THE DAILY CALENDAR LOG
The activities with the highest priorities are then transferred to the “daily calendar log”.
The project manager assigns these activities to the appropriate time blocks based on his
own energy cycle. Unfilled time blocks are then used for unexpected crises or for lower-
priority activities.
If there are more priority elements than time slots, the project manager may try to
schedule well in advance. This is normally not a good practice, because it creates a
backlog of high-priority activities. In addition, an activity that today is a “B” priority
could easily become an “A” priority in a day or two. The moral here is do not postpone
until tomorrow what you or your team can do today.
EFFECTIVE TIME MANAGEMENT
There are several techniques that project managers
can practice in order to make better use of their
time:
● Avoid useless memos.
● Refuse to do the unimportant.
● Delegate. ● Look ahead.
● Follow the schedule. ● Ask: Is this trip necessary?
● Decide fast. ● Know your energy cycle.
● Decide who should attend. ● Control telephone and email time.
● Learn to say no. ● Send out the meeting agenda.
● Start now. ● Overcome procrastination.
● Do the tough part first. ● Manage by exception.
● Travel light.
● Work at travel stops.
RULES FOR TIME MANAGEMENT

● Conduct a time analysis (time log). ● Train your system (boss, subordinate, peers).

● Plan solid blocks for important things. ● Practice delegation.

● Classify your activities. ● Practice calculated neglect.

● Establish priorities. ● Practice management by exception.

● Establish opportunity cost on activities. ● Focus on opportunities—not on problems.

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS FOR EFFECTIVE
TIME MANAGEMENT
● What am I doing that I don’t have to do at all?
● What am I doing that can be done better by someone else?
● What am I doing that could be done as well by someone else?
● Am I establishing the right priorities for my activities?
STRESS AND BURNOUT
The factors that serve to make any occupation especially stressful are
responsibility without the authority or ability to exert control, a
necessity for perfection, the pressure of deadlines, role ambiguity, role
conflict, role overload, the crossing of organizational boundaries,
responsibility for the actions of subordinates, and the necessity to keep
up with the information explosions or technological breakthroughs.
Project managers have all of these factors in their jobs.
STRESS AND BURNOUT
A project manager has his resources controlled by line management, yet the
responsibilities of bringing a project to completion by a prescribed deadline are
his. A project manager may be told to increase the work output, while the work
force is simultaneously being cut. Project managers are expected to get work out
on schedule, but are often not permitted to pay overtime. One project manager
described it this way: “I have to implement plans I didn’t design, but if the
project fails, I’m responsible.
FACETS THAT STRESS CAN MANIFEST
1. Being tired. 7. Feeling worthless.
2. Feeling depressed. 8. Feeling resentful and
disillusioned of people.
3. Being physically and
emotionally exhausted. 9. Feeling hopeless.
4. Burned out. 10. Feeling rejected.
5. Being unhappy. 11. Feeling anxious.
6. Feeling trapped.
CONFLICTS

CHAPTER 7
“Conflicts are way of life”

Harold Kerzner
The ability to handle conflicts requires an understanding of why they occur.
Asking and answering these four questions may help handle and prevent conflicts.
● What are the project objectives and are they in conflict with other projects?
● Why do conflicts occur?
● How do we resolve conflicts?
● Is there any type of analysis that could identify possible conflicts before they
occur?
PROJECT OBJECTIVES AND CONFLICTS
Each project must have at least one objective. The objectives of the
project must be made known to all project personnel and all
managers, at every level of the organization. If this information is not
communicated accurately, then it is entirely possible that upper-level
managers, project managers, and functional managers may all have a
different interpretation of the ultimate objective, a situation that
invites conflicts
Project objectives must be:
● Specific, not general

● Not overly complex

● Measurable, tangible, and verifiable

● Appropriate level, challenging

● Realistic and attainable

● Established within resource bounds

● Consistent with resources available or anticipated

● Consistent with organizational plans, policies, and procedures

MANAGEMENT-BY-OBJECTIVE
APPROACH (MBO)
Many projects are directed and controlled using a management-by-
objective (MBO) approach. The philosophy of management by
objectives:
● Is proactive rather than reactive management
● Is results oriented, emphasizing accomplishment
● Focuses on change to improve individual and organizational
effectiveness
MBO
Management by objectives is a systems approach for
aligning project goals with organizational goals, project
goals with the goals of other subunits of the organization,
and project goals with individual goals.
MBO
● Systems approach to planning and obtaining project results for an
organization
● Strategy of meeting individual needs at the same time that project
needs are met
● Method of clarifying what each individual and organizational unit’s
contribution to the project should be
THE CONFLICT ENVIRONMENT
In the project environment, conflicts are inevitable. However, conflicts
and their resolution can be planned for. For example, conflicts can easily
develop out of a situation where members of a group have a
misunderstanding of each other’s roles and responsibilities. Through
documentation, such as linear responsibility charts, it is possible to
establish formal organizational procedures (either at the project level or
companywide). Resolution means collaboration in which people must
rely on one another. Without this, mistrust will prevail.
The most common types of conflicts
involve:
● Manpower resources ● Priorities
● Equipment and facilities ● Administrative procedures
● Capital expenditures ● Scheduling
● Costs ● Responsibilities
● Technical opinions and trade-offs ● Personality clashes
Sometimes conflict is “meaningful” and produces beneficial results. These
meaningful conflicts should be permitted to continue as long as project constraints
are not violated and beneficial results are being received. An example of this would
be two technical specialists arguing that each has a better way of solving a problem,
and each trying to find additional supporting data for his hypothesis.
Conflicts can occur with anyone and over anything. Some people contend that
personality conflicts are the most difficult to resolve. Below are several situations.
The reader might consider what he or she would do if placed in the situations.
Many executives feel that the best way of resolving conflicts is by establishing priorities. This
may be true as long as priorities are not continually shifted around. Take note of the following as
example:

● Level 0: no completion date

● Level 1: to be completed on or before a specific date
● Level 2: to be completed in or before a given fiscal quarter
● Level 3: to be completed within a given year
CONFLICT RESOLUTION
Although each project within the company may be inherently different, the company
may wish to have the resulting conflicts resolved in the same manner. The four most
common methods are:
1. The development of company-wide conflict resolution policies and procedures
2. The establishment of project conflict resolution procedures during the early planning
activities
3. The use of hierarchical referral
4. The requirement of direct contact
Many companies have attempted to develop company-wide policies
and procedures for conflict resolution, but this method is often
doomed to failure because each project and conflict is different.
Furthermore, project managers, by virtue of their individuality, and
sometimes differing amounts of authority and responsibility, prefer to
resolve conflicts in their own fashion.
A second method for resolving conflicts, and one that is often very
effective, is to “plan” for conflicts during the planning activities. This
can be accomplished through the use of linear responsibility charts.
Planning for conflict resolution is similar to the first method except
that each project manager can develop his own policies, rules, and
procedures.
Hierarchial referral for conflict resolution, in theory, appears as the best
method because neither the project manager nor the functional manager
will dominate. Under this arrangement, the project and functional
managers agree that for a proper balance to exist their common superior
must resolve the conflict to protect the company’s best interest.
Unfortunately, this is not realistic because the common superior cannot be expected to
continually resolve lower-level conflicts and it gives the impression that the functional and
project managers cannot resolve their own problems.
The last method is direct contact in which conflicting parties meet
face-to-face and resolve their disagreement. Unfortunately, this
method does not always work and, if continually stressed, can result
in conditions where individuals will either suppress the identification
of problems or develop new ones during confrontation.
UNDERSTANDING SUPERIOR, SUBORDINATE, AND
FUNCTIONAL CONFLICTS

In order for the project manager to be effective, he must understand how to work
with the various employees who interface with the project. These employees
include upper-level management, subordinate project team members, and
functional personnel. Quite often, the project manager must demonstrate an
ability for continuous adaptability by creating a different working environment
with each group of employees. The need for this was shown in the previous
section by the fact that the relative intensity of conflicts can vary in the lifecycle
of a project.
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
SOURCES AND
CONFLICT
CAUSES
MANAGEMENT OF CONFLICTS
Good project managers realize that conflicts are inevitable, but that good
procedures or techniques can help resolve them. Once a conflict occurs, the
project manager must:
● Study the problem and collect all available information
● Develop a situational approach or methodology
● Set the appropriate atmosphere or climate
 LOGICAL STEPS IN
CONFRONTATION MEETING
● Setting the climate: establishing a willingness to participate
● Analyzing the images: how do you see yourself and others, and how do they see you?
● Collecting the information: getting feelings out in the open
● Defining the problem: defining and clarifying all positions
● Sharing the information: making the information available to all
● Setting the appropriate priorities: developing working sessions for setting priorities and timetables
● Organizing the group: forming cross-functional problem-solving groups
● Problem-solving: obtaining cross-functional involvement, securing commitments, and setting the priorities and timetable
● Developing the action plan: getting commitment
● Implementing the work: taking action on the plan
● Following up: obtaining feedback on the implementation for the action plan
CONFLICT MINIMIZATION PROCEDURES
● Pausing and thinking before reacting

● Building trust

● Trying to understand the conflict motives

● Keeping the meeting under control

● Listening to all involved parties

● Maintaining a give-and-take attitude

● Educating others tactfully on your views

● Being willing to say when you were wrong

● Not acting as a superman and leveling the discussion only once in a while
EFFECTIVE MANAGER IN CONFLICT-
PROBLEM SITUATION
● Knows the organization

● Listens with understanding rather than evaluation

● Clarifies the nature of the conflict

● Understands the feelings of others

● Suggests the procedures for resolving differences

● Maintains relationships with disputing parties

● Facilitates the communications process

● Seeks resolutions
 CONFLICT RESOLUTION MODES
1. Confronting or Collaborating

2. Compromising

3. Smoothing or Accommodating

4. Forcing (or Competing, Being Uncooperative, Being Assertive)

5. Avoiding or Withdrawing
CONFRONTING
With this approach, the conflicting parties meet face-to-face and try to work through their disagreements. This
approach should focus more on solving the problem and less on being combative. This approach is collaboration
and integration where both parties need to win. This method should be used:
● When you and the conflicting party can both get at least what you wanted and maybe more
● To reduce cost
● To create a common power base
● To attack a common foe
● When skills are complementary
● When there is enough time
● When there is trust
● When you have confidence in the other person’s ability
● When the ultimate objective is to learn
COMPROMISING
To compromise is to bargain or to search for solutions so both parties leave with some degree of satisfaction. Compromising
is often the result of confrontation. Some people argue that compromise is a “give and take” approach, which leads to a “win-
win” position. Others argue that compromise is a “lose-lose” position, since neither party gets everything he/she wants or
needs. Compromise should be used:
● When both parties need to be winners
● When you can’t win
● When others are as strong as you are
● When you haven’t time to win
● To maintain your relationship with your opponent
● When you are not sure you are right
● When you get nothing if you don’t
● When stakes are moderate
● To avoid giving the impression of “fighting”
SMOOTHING
This approach is an attempt to reduce the emotions that exist in a conflict. This is accomplished by emphasizing areas of
agreement and deemphasizing areas of disagreement. An example of smoothing would
be to tell someone, “We have agreed on three of the five points and there is no reason why we cannot agree on the last two
points.” Smoothing does not necessarily resolve a conflict, but tries to convince both parties to remain at the bargaining table
because a solution is possible. In smoothing, one may sacrifice one’s own goals in order to satisfy the needs of the other party.
Smoothing should be used:
● To reach an overarching goal
● To create obligation for a trade-off at a later date
● When the stakes are low
● When liability is limited
● To maintain harmony
● When any solution will be adequate
● To create goodwill (be magnanimous) ● When you’ll lose anyway ● To gain time
FORCING
This is what happens when one party tries to impose the solution on the other party. Conflict resolution works best when
resolution is achieved at the lowest possible levels. The higher up the conflict goes, the greater the tendency for the conflict to
be forced, with the result being a “win-lose” situation in which one party wins at the expense of the other. Forcing should be
used:
● When you are right
● When a do-or-die situation exists
● When stakes are high
● When important principles are at stake
● When you are stronger (never start a battle you can’t win)
● To gain status or to gain power
● In short-term, one-shot deals
● When the relationship is unimportant
● When it’s understood that a game is being played
● When a quick decision must be made
AVOIDING
Avoidance is often regarded as a temporary solution to a problem. The problem and the resulting conflict
can come up again and again. Some people view avoiding as cowardice and an unwillingness to be
responsive to a situation. Avoiding should be used:
● When you can’t win
● When the stakes are low
● When the stakes are high, but you are not ready yet
● To gain time
● To unnerve your opponent
● To preserve neutrality or reputation
● When you think the problem will go away
● When you win by delay
SPECIAL
TOPICS
CHAPTER 8
SPECIAL TOPICS
● Performance measurement

● Compensation and rewards

● Managing small projects

● Managing mega projects

● Morality, ethics and the corporate culture

● Internal partnerships

● External partnerships

● Training and education

● Integrated project teams