SQL

Rameswara Reddy.K.V
DDL (Data Definition Language)

 CREATE - to create objects in the database.

 ALTER - alters the structure of the databas.
 DROP - delete objects from the database.
 TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table,
including all spaces allocated for the records are
removed.
 COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary.
DML(Data Manipulation Language)

 SELECT - retrieve data from the a database.

 INSERT - insert data into a table.
 UPDATE - updates existing data within a table.
DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space
for the records remain.
DCL (Data Control Language )

 COMMIT - save work done.

 ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the
last COMMIT
GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database.
REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the
GRANT command .
SQL - CREATE TABLE
create command syntax:
create table @table_name(@col_name1 data_type
constraint @constraint_name primary key,
@col_name2 data_type, … @col_namen data_type);
Ex:
Create table student(sid number, sname varchar2(30),
cgpa number(4,2));
Description of the table
desc @table_name;
Ex: desc student;
Alter Command – to alter the columns
alter table @table_name add @new_col_name1
data_type;

Ex: alter table student add grade varchar2(3);

alter table @table_name drop column

@col_name1;

Ex: alter table student drop column grade;

alter table @table_name modify @col_name1
new_data_type;

Ex: Alter table student modify grade char;

alter table @table_name modify @col_name1

existing_data_type(new_size);

Ex: Alter table student modify grade char(4);

alter table @table_name rename column

existing_col_name to new_column_name;

Ex: alter table student rename column grade to grades;

Truncate and Drop
truncate table @table_name;

Ex: truncate table student;

drop table @table_name;

Ex: drop table student;

DML
insert command:

insert into @table_name

values('&@col_name1(varchar2/char/varchar/date)',
&@col_name2(number));

Ex: insert into student values(&id, ’&name’, ‘&branch’ ,

&cgpa);
Select Command
select * from @table_name;
* -> all rows and all columns of a table

Ex: select * from student;

select @col_name1,@col_name2,...,@col_namen from

@table_name;
Ex: select id, name from student;

select @col_name1,... from @table_name where

<condition>;
Ex: select id, name, cgpa from student where id=123;
Delete command
delete from @table_name;
used to delete all rows present in a table
temporarily and you are able to recover it by
using rollback command
Ex: delete from student;

delete from @table_name where

<condition>;
used to delete selective rows based on the
condition
Ex: delete from student where id=123;
Update command:
update @table_name set
@col_name=new_value [where
<condition>];

Ex: update student set cgpa=79.23

where id=123;
DCL commands
Commit

Ex: commit;

Grant

Ex: Grant dba to username;

Revoke

Ex: revoke dba to username;

Roll back

Ex: rollback student;

Aggregate functions
Min

Ex: select Min(marks) from student;

Max

Ex: select Max(marks) from student;

Aggregate functions
Avg

Ex: select avg(marks) from student;

sum

Ex: select sum(marks) from student;

Aggregate functions
count

Ex: select count(marks) from student;

abs

Ex: select abs(-15) from dual;

Aggregate functions
power

Ex: select power(2,3) from dual;

sqrt

Ex: select sqrt(25) from dual;

Aggregate functions
lower

Ex: select lower(‘GPREC’) from dual;

upper

Ex: select upper(‘gprec’) from dual;

Aggregate functions
initcap

Ex: select initcap(‘hello gPREC world’) from dual;

length

Ex: select length(‘gprec’) from dual;

Aggregate functions
substr

Ex: select substr(‘hello gPREC world’,2) from dual;

Ex: select substr(‘hello gPREC world’, 2,5) from dual;

ltrim

Ex: select ltrim(‘xxxXgprec’, ‘x’) from dual;

Pattern Matching
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r%';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_ _%';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o';

SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'a%';
In operator
The SQL IN Operator
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values
in a WHERE clause.
The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR
conditions.
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);
IN
Ex: SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

Ex: SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

Ex: SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM Supplie
rs);
Range Search:
Between & Not Between
The SQL BETWEEN Operator
The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given
range. The values can be numbers, text, or dates.
The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end
values are included. 
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;
Ex: select empno,ename,job from emp where sal
between 1000 and 2000;

Ex: select empno,ename,job from emp where sal not

between 1000 and 2000;
Order by
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set
in ascending or descending order.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in
ascending order by default. To sort the records in
descending order, use the DESC keyword.
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;
Order by
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country;

SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country DESC;

SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;
Group by
The GROUP BY statement groups rows that have the
same values into summary rows, like "find the number of
customers in each country".
The GROUP BY statement is often used with aggregate
functions (COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM, AVG) to group the
result-set by one or more columns.
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition
GROUP BY column_name(s)
ORDER BY column_name(s);
SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country;

SELECT COUNT(CustomerID), Country
FROM Customers
GROUP BY Country
ORDER BY COUNT(CustomerID) DESC;
SQL Joins

A JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based
on a related column between them.
Different Types of SQL JOINs
Here are the different types of the JOINs in SQL:
(INNER) JOIN: Returns records that have matching values in both
tables
LEFT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the left table, and the
matched records from the right table
RIGHT (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records from the right table, and
the matched records from the left table
FULL (OUTER) JOIN: Returns all records when there is a match in
either left or right table
      
INNER JOIN

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Ex: SELECT Orders.OrderID,
Customers.CustomerName
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID =
Customers.CustomerID;
LEFT JOIN

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
LEFT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Ex: SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID =
Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Right Join
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
RIGHT JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name;

Ex: SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName,

Employees.FirstName
FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID =
Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;
Full Join
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
FULL OUTER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name = table2.column_name
WHERE condition;

Ex: SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
FULL OUTER JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID=
Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;
Natural Join
Joins two tables information.

Ex: select * from emp natural join dept;

Union
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set
of two or more SELECT statements.
Each SELECT statement within UNION must have the
same number of columns
The columns must also have similar data types
The columns in each SELECT statement must also be
in the same order
The UNION operator selects only distinct values by
default. To allow duplicate values, use UNION ALL:
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;
Ex: SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Union All
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table1
UNION ALL
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table2;

Ex: SELECT City FROM Customers
UNION ALL
SELECT City FROM Suppliers
ORDER BY City;
Intersect
The INTERSECT clause in SQL is used to combine
two SELECT statements but the dataset returned by
the INTERSECT statement will be the intersection of
the data-sets of the two SELECT statements.
In simple words, the INTERSECT statement will
return only those rows which will be common to both
of the SELECT statements.
SELECT column1 , column2 .... FROM table_names WHERE
condition INTERSECT SELECT column1 , column2 .... FROM
table_names WHERE condition

Ex: select deptno from emp intersect select deptno from

dept order by deptno;

Ex:SELECT ID, NAME, Amount, Date FROM Customers LEFT

JOIN Orders ON Customers.ID = Orders.Customer_id
INTERSECT SELECT ID, NAME, Amount, Date FROM
Customers RIGHT JOIN Orders ON Customers.ID =
Orders.Customer_id;
PRIMARY KEY

The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a

table.
Primary keys must contain UNIQUE values, and cannot contain
NULL values.
A table can have only ONE primary key; and in the table, this
primary key can consist of single or multiple columns (fields).
CREATE TABLE Persons (
    ID int NOT NULL,
    LastName varchar(255) NOT NULL,
    FirstName varchar(255),
    Age int,
    PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);
Foreign Key
A FOREIGN KEY is a key used to link two tables
together.
A FOREIGN KEY is a field (or collection of fields) in
one table that refers to the PRIMARY KEY in another
table.
The table containing the foreign key is called the child
table, and the table containing the candidate key is
called the referenced or parent table.
Ex: CREATE TABLE Orders (
    OrderID int NOT NULL,
    OrderNumber int NOT NULL,
    PersonID int,
    PRIMARY KEY (OrderID),
    FOREIGN KEY (PersonID) REFERENCES Persons(P
ersonID)
);
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