Dr.

Narasimha Suri Tinnaluri

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
Gudlavalleru Engineering College, Gudlavalleru

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 UNIT – VI

Power Plant Economics: Capital cost, investment of fixed charges,

operating costs, Load curves, and load duration curve. Definitions of
connected load, Maximum demand, demand factor, average load,
load factor, diversity factor and related exercises.

Environmental Aspects of Power Generation: Effluents from

power plants and their impact on environment, Pollutants and
Pollution standards, Methods of Pollution control.

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Course Objectives
•To introduce the working of various power plants.
•To familiarize with estimation of unit power cost and factors
affecting it.

Learning Outcomes
Upon successful completion of the course, the students will be able to
• identify the various conventional energy resources.
• explain the working principles of various power plants used in
electric power generation.
• estimate unit power cost under specified conditions.
• list out power plant effluents and their impact on environment.

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Types of Load:
•Residential load: Power needed for domestic appliances like lights, radios,
television, water heaters, refrigerators, electrical cookers, and small motors
for pumping water.
•Commercial load: It includes lighting for shops, advertisements and
electrical appliances used in shops and restaurants, etc.,
•Industrial load: It includes load demand of various industries.
•Municipal load: It consists of street lighting, power required for water
supply and drainage purposes.
•Irrigation load: It includes the power required for pumps driven by
electrical motor to supply water to fields.
•Traction load: It includes trams, cars, trolley, buses and railways.

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Terms and Definitions:
•Connected load: It is the combined continuous rating of all appliances in the
consumer premises, which is connected to the system under consideration.
•Demand: It is the load that is drawn from the source of supply over a suitable
and specified period of time.
•Maximum demand or peak load: It is the greatest of all the demands that
have occurred during a given period.
•Demand factor: It is the ratio of maximum demand of the system to the total
connected load of the system under consideration.

It is always less than unity.

Maximum demand
Demand factor 
Total connected load
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 Example - 1
Energy Total
S.N No. of
Connected load Consumption consumption
o units
per unit (W) (W)
1 Tube lights 35 3 105
2 Electric bulbs 8.5 2 17
3 Fans (48 inch) 75 3 225
4 TV sets 80 2 160
5 Laptops 20 1 20
6 Computers 80 1 80
Charging of
7 2.5 4 10
mobiles
8 Refrigerator 100 1 100
9 Air-Conditioners 1200 1 1200
10 Water pumps 250 1 250
Total connected load (W) 2167 6
Terms and Definitions:
•Load factor: It is the ratio of average power to the maximum demand.
Average load
Load factor 
•Diversity factor (For a group): It is demand
Maximum the ratio of the sum of the
maximum demands of the individual parts of the system to the
maximum demand of the whole system, under consideration.

•Utilization factor: It is defined as the ratio of the maximum generator

demand to the generator capacity.

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Terms and Definitions:
•Plant capacity factor: It is defined as the ratio of actual energy produced in kwh
to the maximum power that could have been produced during the same period.

E
•Plant use factor: It is definedPlant
as the ratio of
capacity energy
factor  produced in a given time to
C t
the maximum power that could have been produced during the actual number of
hours, the plant was in operation.

•Firm power: It is the power which should be always available even under
E
emergency conditions. Plant use factor 
C  t1
•Cold reserve: It is that reserve generating capacity which is not in operation but
can be made available for service.
•Spinning reserve: It is that reserve generating capacity which is connected to the
bus and ready to take the load.

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Example – 2:

Problem Description:

The maximum (peak) load on a thermal power plant of 60 MW capacity is 50

MW at an annual load factor of 50%. The loads having maximum demands of 25
MW, 20 MW, 8 MW and, 5 MW are connected to the power station. Determine:

(a) Average load on power station

(b) Energy generated per year

(c) Demand factor and (d) Diversity factor.

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Solution:
Given data, Plant capacity, C : 60 MW
Maximum load : 50 MW
Connected demand : 25, 20, 8 and 5 MW
Annual load factor : 0.50
Load factor = Average load/Maximum demand
(a)Average load = load factor x maximum demand = 0.5x 50 = 25 MW
(b)Energy generated per year = Average load x 1 year duration
= 25 x 1000 x 365 x 24 = 219 x 106 kWh
(c)Demand factor = maximum of connected demand/total max. connected load
= 50/(25+20+8+5) = 0.862
(d)Diversity factor = total max. connected load/maximum of connected load =
(25+20+8+5)/50 = 1.16 (Reciprocal of demand factor)

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Example - 3

Problem Description:

A hydro power plant is to be used as peak load plant at an annual load

factor of 30%. The electrical energy obtained during the year is 750 ×
105 kWh. Determine the maximum demand.

If the plant capacity factor is 24%, find reserve capacity of the plant.

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Solution:
Given data: Annual load factor = 0.3
Plant capacity factor = 0.24
Energy produced in an year, E = 750 x 105 kWh
Average energy or demand = (750 x 105)/(365 x 24)
= 8561.64 kW = 8.561 MW
Annual load factor = Average load/Maximum demand
Maximum demand = Average load/Annual load factor
= 8.561/0.3 = 28.54 MW

Plant capacity, E
Plant capacity factor 
Reserve capacity, R = Plant capacity – Maximum demand C t
= 35.67 – 28.54 = 7.13 MW E 750 105
C   35.67 103 kW
 Plant capacity factor   t 0.24  365  24
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 Load Curve:

Fig. Load Curve

It is a graphic record showing the power demands for every instant

during a certain time interval. 13
 – If it is for 1 hour, it is called hourly load curve;

– for 24 hours, it is called daily load curve;

– for 30 days it is called monthly load curve;

– for 8760 hours it is called yearly load curve.

• The area under the load curve represents the energy generated in the
period.
• The area under the curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the power station.
Area under the load curve
Average load 
total duration

• The peak load indicated by the load curve/graph represent the

maximum demand of the power station. 14
Significance of load curves:
•Load curves give full information about the incoming load and help
to installed capacity of the power station and to decide the
economical sizes of various generating units.
•These curves also help to estimate the generating cost and to decide
the operating schedule of the power station.

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Load Duration Curve:

It represents the rearrangement of all the load elements of

chronological load curve in the order of descending magnitude.

Fig: Load Duration Curve

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Example - 4
Problem Description:

A central power station has annual factors as follows:

Load factor : 60%

Capacity factor : 40%

Use factor : 50%

Power station has a maximum demand of 15 MW. Determine

Annual energy production

Reserve capacity over and above peak load

Hours per year not in service

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Solution:
Give data for one year operation (annual factors) is as follows:

Duration of operation, t : 1 year = 365 x 24 = 8760 hrs

Load factor : 60%

Capacity factor : 40%

Use factor : 50%

Maximum demand : 15 MW

Load factor = average load/maximum load

Average load = load factor x maximum load = 15 x 0.6 = 9 MW

Energy produced per year, E = 9 x 365 x 24 = 78840 MW-hr

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Solution (cont..)
Plant capacity factor = E/(C x t)

Plant capacity, C = E/(plant capacity factor x t)

= 78840/(8760 x 0.4) = 22.5 MW

Reserve capacity over and above peak load = 22.5 – 15 = 7.5 MW

Plant Use factor = (E/(C x tactual))

Actual working duration of plant,

tactual = E/(C x use factor) = 78840/(22.5 x 0.5) = 7008 hrs

Hours per year not in service = 1 year duration – Actual working duration =
8760 – 7008 = 1752 hrs

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Example – 5: The maximum demand of a power station is 96000 KW
and daily load curve is described as follows:

Time 0-6 6-8 8-12 12-14 14-18 18-22 22-24

hours
Load 48 60 72 60 84 96 48
(MW)
(i)Determine the load factor of power station.
(ii)What is the load factor of standby equipment rated at 30 MW
that takes up all load in excess of 72 MW? Also calculate its use
factor.

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Solution: S. No Time (hrs) Load (MW) Energy produced
1 0–6 48 48 x 6 = 288
2 6–8 60 60 x 2 = 120
3 8 – 12 72 72 x 4 = 288
4 12 – 14 60 60 x 2 = 120
5 14-18 84 84 x 4= 336
6 18-22 96 96 x 4 = 384
7 22 – 24 48 48 x 2 = 96
Total Energy Produced (E) 1632 MW-hr
(i) Load factor = average load/maximum load
average load = Total Energy Produced (E) / Duration.
= 1632 x 103 KW-hr/24 hr = 68000 KW 21
Maximum demand = 96000 KW
Load factor = average load/maximum load
= 68000/96000 = 0.71
(ii) load factor of standby equipment:
The standby equipment supplies
84-72 = 12 MW for 4 hours (14-18)
96-72 = 24 MW for 4 hours (18-22)
Energy generated by standby equipment = ((12×4)+(24×4))×103 =
144 ×103 kW hr
Time for which standby equipment remains in operation (from load
duration curve) = 4 + 4 = 8 hr
Average = 144 ×103/8 = 18×103 kW.
Load factor = 18×103/24×103 = 0.75.
Plant Use factor = (E/(C x tactual)) = 144 ×103/ (30×103×8) = 0.6 22
Example - 6
Problem Description:
A power station has to supply load as follows:

Time
0-6 6-12 12-14 14-18 18-24
(hours)
Load
45 135 90 150 75
(MW)
Draw the load curve and load duration curve.

Choose suitable generating units to supply the load.

Calculate the load factor and plant capacity factor.

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Solution:
Time Load
S. No Energy produced
(hrs) (MW)
1 0–6 45 45 x 6 = 270
2 6 – 12 135 135 x 6 = 810
3 12 – 14 90 90 x 2 = 180
4 14 – 18 150 150 x 4 = 600
5 18 – 24 75 75 x 6 = 450
Total Energy Produced (E) 2310 MW-hr

Average load = E/duration

= 2310/24 = 96.24 MW
Load factor = Average load/Max. Load
= 96.24/150 = 0.6416
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Load Curve:
S. Time Load
No (hrs) (MW)
1 0–6 45
2 6 – 12 135
3 12 – 14 90
4 14 – 18 150
5 18 – 24 75
Fig: Load Curve

Average load = Total Energy Produced (E)/ Total duration

= 2310/24 = 96.24 MW
Load factor = Average load/Max. Load = 96.24/150 = 0.6416
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Load Duration Curve:

Durati Cumulative
S. Load
on time period
No (MW)
(hrs) (hrs)
1 150 14 – 18 4
2 135 6 – 12 4 + 6 = 10
3 90 12 – 14 10 + 2 = 12
4 75 18 – 24 12 + 6 = 18
5 45 0–6 18 + 6 = 24
Fig: Load duration curve
Total duration of operation, t = 24 hrs
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Selection of generating units:
Load duration curve will indicate the operation schedule of different
generating units:
First generating unit (unit 1) of 45 MW - will run for 24 hours
Second generating unit (unit 2) of 45 MW - will run for 18 hours
Third generating unit (unit 3) of 45 MW - will run for 10 hours
Fourth generating unit (unit 1) of 15 MW - will run for 4 hours
One additional unit (unit 5) should be kept as standby. Its capacity should
be equal to the capacity of biggest set i.e., 45 MW.

Total capacity of plant, C = 45 + 45 + 45 +15 + 45 = 195 MW

Plant capacity factor = E/(C x t) = 2310/(195 x 24) = 0.494

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Cost Analysis:
The cost of a power system, depends on whether
– an entire new power system has to be setup or

– an existing system has to be replaced or

– an extension has to be provided to the existing system.

The cost analysis includes:

– Capital cost or Fixed Cost:

(a) Initial cost: It includes land cost, building cost, equipment cost, installation
cost and overhead charges which will include the transportation cost, stores
and storekeeping charges, interest during construction.

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(b)Interest: All enterprises need investment of money and this money
may be obtained as loan, through bonds and share or from owners
of personal funds. Interest is the difference between money
borrowed and money returned.

(c) Depreciation cost: Depreciation accounts for the deterioration of

the equipment and decrease in its value due to corrosion,
weathering and wear and tear with use. It also covers the decrease
in value of equipment due to outdated and no longer used.

(d) Insurance.
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 Operational Cost:
• Fuels cost includes:
• Operating taxes includes:
• Cost of fuel
• Transportation cost – Income tax
• Fuel handling cost – Sales tax
• Maintenance includes: – Social security &
• Periodic cleaning employee security etc.,
• Greasing • Supervision includes:
• Adjustments and overhauling
 Staff superintendent
of equipment
 Chief engineer
• Cost of stores
• Lubricating oil and grease  Chemist, Engineers
• Small tools  Store incharges
• Chemicals, Paints  Purchase officers etc.,
• Operating labour cost
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Comparison of Power Plants:
Diesel
Hydro-Electric Steam Power
S.No Characteristic Power
Power Plant Plant
Plant
Easier than
Planning and Difficult and
1 Hydro-power Easiest
Construction takes long time
plant
Lower than
2 Civil works cost Highest Lowest
hydro-plant
Lower than
3 Overall generation cost Lowest diesel power Highest
plant
Running and maintenance
4 cost (as a fraction of total 1/10 1/7 1/6
generation cost)

5 Reliability Good Good Excellent

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 Environmental Aspects of Power Generation
Introduction:
•Different power plants releases different waste products into the atmosphere in the
form of gases, ash, radioactivity etc.,
•These affects the ecology balance creating harmful effects to the living beings as well
as flora and fauna.
•Major power plant pollutants of concern are:
 From Fossil fuel power plants (Gas and Coal based):
Sulphur oxide, Nitrogen oxide, Carbon oxide, Thermal pollution, Particulate
matter
 From Nuclear Power plants:
• Radioactivity release
• Radioactivity wastes
• Thermal pollution

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Pollution from Thermal Power Plants:
•The environment is polluted is caused by thermal power plants by
burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil or gas).
•The combustible elements of the fuel are converted to gaseous
products and non combustible elements ash.

The emissions can be classified as follows:

•Gaseous emission: Sulphur dioxide, Hydrogen sulphide, oxides of
nitrogen, carbon monoxide etc.
•Particulate emission: smoke, fumes, fly ash, cinders etc.
•Solid waste emission: The fossil fuel fired system also discharge
solid wastes such as calcium and magnesium salts generated by
absorption of SO2 and SO3 by reactant like lime stone.
•Thermal pollution or waste heat: Discharge of thermal energy into
water.
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Gaseous Emissions and their effects:
Effects
S. No Pollutant Materials/
Man Vegetation
Animals
1 SO2 Irritation of throat Destruction of
and eyes, crops and Corrosion
respiration system reduced yield
2 NO2 Irritation, Oedema
--- ---
of lungs
3 H 2S Bare and Flourosis in
Destruction of
Respiratory cattle
crops
diseases grazing
4 CO Poisoning,
increased accident- --- ---
liability 34
Acid rains:
•Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

•Over hours and days the NO and SO2 oxidize to NO2 and SO3, respectively, which subsequently form acids of nitrogen and sulfur.

•Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on forests, freshwaters, and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to peel.

•Corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues as well as having impacts on human health.

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Methods to reduce the emission of SOx from Thermal & Gas
Turbine plants:
Usage of wet and dry scrubbers reduces the emissions of Sox to the
surroundings through flue gases.

Methods to reduce the emission of NOx from Thermal & Gas

Turbine plants:

• Reduction of temperature in combustion zone

• Reduction of residence period in combustion zone
• Increase of equivalence ratio in the combustion zone

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 Particulate Emissions:
Smoke: Diameter less than 10 microns and are visible only.
Fumes: Very small particles resulting from chemical reactions and

normally composed of metals and metallic oxides

Fly-Ash: Particles of diameters 100 microns or less
Cinders: Particles of diameters 100 microns or more
Collection Efficiency:

mass of dust removed

Collector efficiency  100
mass of dust present
For Bag house filters and Cinder catchers, collection efficiency caries from
50 – 90% whereas for Electrostatic precipitator, it is as high as 99.9%.

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Thermal Pollution: Large quantity of hot water is discharged into rivers or
lakes from the condenser.
Effects:

•This increases the temperature of water bodies.

•If the temperature is greater than 35 0C, the dissolved oxygen levels

decreases leading to the death of aquatic living beings.

•The water temperature is the limitation on the maximum outlet temperature as

10C above the atmospheric temperature.

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Thermal Discharge Index (TDI):
It is the number of thermal energy units discharged to the environment
for every unit of electric energy generated.

Thermal power to environment ( MW )

TDI  100
Electrical power output in MW

Methods: Construction of cooling ponds, cooling towers, and separate

lakes.

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Pollution from Nuclear Power Plants:
Radioactive Pollution

• Radiation released from the reaction during chain reaction.

• Can be reduced by the construction of radiation shield around the reactor.
Waste from reactor

• Solid waste - contains isotopes of with various half lives

• Liquid

• Gas

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Nuclear Waste Disposal
• Storage tanks – radioactive waste can be stored in tanks and

buried under earth surface in corrosion resistance tanks.

• Dilution – low energy wastes are diluted either in liquid or

gaseous materials.
• Sea disposal

• Atmospheric dilution – used for the gaseous radioactive wastes.

• Burying in sea – solid waste is stored in concrete blocks which

are buried in sea.

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THANK YOU

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