INTRODUCTIO

N TO
RESEARCH
Intended Learning
Outcomes (ILO)
After the completion of the chapter,
students should be able to:
1.Explain the different forms of inquiry;
2.Discuss the research process;
3.Describe the classification of
research; and
4.Give details of the ethical and legal
considerations in research.
 CHAPTER COVERAGE

THE RESEARCH CLASSIFICATION RESEARCH IN ETHICS IN

PROCESS OF RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH
Science
Psychology is a Science like
astronomy, biology, and chemistry.

It is a science because it takes this same

general approach to understanding one
aspect of the natural world: human
behavior.

Psychology upholds the (4)

components: describe, explain, predict,
and control.
 Features of Science
The general scientific approach has three fundamental features (Stanovich, 2010).

The first is systematic empiricism. Empiricism refers to learning based on observation and scientists
learn about the natural world systematically, by carefully planning, making, recording, and
analyzing observations of it.

The second feature is its scientific approach.

The third feature of science is that it created public knowledge. After asking their empirical
questions, making their systematic observations, and drawing their conclusions, scientists publish
their work.
 Science versus
Pseudoscience
• Pseudoscience refers to the activities
and beliefs that are claimed to be
scientific by their proponents-and may
appear to be scientific at first glance-but
are not. A set of beliefs and activities
might also be pseudoscientific because
it does not address empirical questions.
• If scientific, it should be a falsifiable
claim otherwise, it will be
pseudoscientific (unfalsifiable claim).
 At least three reasons to know Pseudoscience:
Science
versus One is that learning about pseudoscience helps bring the
fundamental features of science—and the importance—into sharper

Pseudos
focus.

cience
A second is that biorhythms, psychic powers, astrology, and many other
pseudoscientific beliefs are widely held and are promoted on the Internet,
on television, and in books and magazines. Learning what makes them
pseudoscientific can help us identify and evaluate such beliefs and
practices when we encounter them.

A third reason is that many pseudosciences purport to explain some

aspect of human behavior and mental processes, including biorhythms,
astrology, graphology (handwriting analysis), and magnet therapy for
pain control. It is important for students of psychology to distinguish
their own field from this “pseudopsychology.”
 • An excellent source for information on pseudoscience is
The The Skeptic’s Dictionary (https://www.skepdic.com).
Among the pseudoscientific beliefs and practices you can
Skeptic’s learn about are the following:
• Cryptozoology. The study of the “hidden” creatures like
Dictionary Bigfoot, the Loch Ness monster, and the Chupacabra.
• Pseudoscientific psychotherapies. Past-life regression,
rebirthing therapy, and bioscream therapy, among others.
• Homeopathy. The treatment of medical conditions using
natural substances that have been diluted sometimes to the
point of no longer being present.
• Pyramidology. Odd theories about the origin and function
of the Egyptian pyramids (e.g., that they were built by
extraterrestrials) and the idea that pyramids in general have
healing and other special powers.
THE RESEARCH
PROCESS
 The Research is the systematic study to
generate or discover knowledge.
Resear The researcher/s:
ch • Formulates a research question

Process Conducts a study designed to answer the question

•
• Analyzes the resulting data
• Draws conclusion about the answer to the question;
and
• Publishes the result so that they become part of the
research literature.
Simple Model of Scientific Research in
Psychology (Mehl, et al.)
 Other Related literature

Sources Previous research questions

of
Possible Informal observations (naturalistic)

Researc Recommendations and Limitations

h
(previously conducted research)
 ATIONS
OF
RESEARC
H
Experimental Research Setting versus
Naturalistic Research Setting
• The focus is on predicting and testing hypothesis. • The focus is on understanding and interpreting
This is done by targeting a specific phenomenon people’s lived experiences as they happen in their
and controlling other variables that may affect it. specific contexts.

• In natural science disciplines like physics, • Here, researchers record observations and ask
questions about the everyday environment of the
chemistry, and biology, a researcher may do
participants or the phenomenon.
laboratory experiments that test hypothesis.
• Some social and natural sciences are more focused on
• Some social science fields like psychology or
obtaining knowledge from the context rather than
policy studies like education may also do from experiments.
experiments with human subjects.
• For example, anthropologists and rural sociologists go
• An example of this is the concept of a randomized to farming communities to investigate the people’s
controlled trial, where different sets of people are situation and learn from their experiences about
assigned to either treatment or control group. farming, work, or disaster preparedness.
 Conceptual Research and
Empirical Research
• Uses different paradigms to derive new concepts • Tests the claims of the conceptual research and
or theories. Often, there is a development of a new relies on direct observations, experiences, and
theory or a reinterpretation of an old one. evidence to test hypotheses. Researchers study a
• This type of research often forms the base phenomenon, a historical fact, or a social
problem, and result from the research can either
knowledge that needs to be tested. This type of
confirms or challenge theories and concepts.
research is important because it organizes and
systematizes the understanding of different • This type of research is important because it
concepts. provides grounded examples that show the
• Often, conceptual research is also termed complexity of realities, problems, and solutions.
theoretical research. • This research also shows the factors that could
confirm or deny the concepts or theories.
 Pure Research and Applied
Research
• It is motivated by a possible increase in knowledge • It is motivated by its practicality and usefulness,
or a phenomenon or an intellectual challenge that especially as this type of research contributes not only
may have not practical application when originally to the knowledge base but also to the improvement of
studied. the lives of people, organizations, or ecosystems.

• Some pure research projects, such as in mathematics • Some examples of applied research are evaluation of
or philosophy, have been applied only after their education programs, understanding of crime or
discovery while some have no applications at all. women’s issues, learning about social issues like
health systems, and solving environmental problems
• When undertaking this type of research, you should
like global warming.
be knowledgeable about abstract concepts, critical
assumptions, and specialized theories. • Doing applied research entails learning about the
reality, understanding its mechanisms, and suggesting
ways of using the knowledge for better decisions,
policies, actions, etc.
 Quantitative Research versus
Qualitative Research • Often used in exploring new ideas or explaining
• Often used in understanding the magnitude of a
concepts in greater depth.
phenomenon, testing hypotheses about the
relationship between variables, and making • Here research questions focus on understanding the
predictions about human behavior. phenomenon, person, community, or reality in its natural
and everyday state.
• In this type of research, the focus is on the extent
• You are more concerned about the depth of the
and measurement of a phenomenon.
understanding rather than the breadth of the reality’s
• For example, a research studying the percentage of magnitude. Your analysis should also be grounded in the
out-of-school youth in Metro Manila shows the experience of the people you study.
enormity of this social issue. In line with this, you
may also be interested in what factors predict being
out-of-school (e.g., poverty, parents’ education,
cognitive ability). These quantifiable factors are
usually called variables.
 Mixed Methods Research
• In here, both quantitative and qualitative approaches are used to study a
phenomenon, issue, or problem. By using both, you are able to show the magnitude
of the results and an in-depth analysis of what could be driving these results.
RESEARCH IN
PSYCHOLOG
Y
Who Conducts Research
in Psychology?
• Scientific research in psychology is generally conducted by people
with doctoral degrees (usually the doctor of philosophy [PhD]) and
master’s degrees in psychology and related fields, often supported by
research assistants with bachelor’s degrees or other relevant training.
• Some of them work for government agencies (e.g., the National
Institute of Mental Health), nonprofit organizations (e.g., the
American Cancer Society), or the private sector (e.g., product
development). However, most of them are college and university
faculty, who often collaborate with their graduate and undergraduate
students. Although some researchers are trained and licensed as
clinicians—especially those who conduct research in clinical
psychology—the majority are not.
Who Conducts Research
in Psychology?
• Instead, they have expertise in one or more of the many other
subfields of psychology: behavioral neuroscience, cognitive
psychology, developmental psychology, social psychology, and
so on.
• Doctoral-level researchers might be employed to conduct
research full-time or, like many college and university faculty
members, to conduct research in addition to teaching classes
and serving their institution and community in other ways.
• Of course, people also conduct research in psychology because
they enjoy the intellectual and technical challenges involved
and the satisfaction of contributing to scientific knowledge of
human behavior. You might find that you enjoy the process too.
 Mental Health
• Topics on emotional stability, depression, anxiety, addictions, fear among working
and non-working individuals of different age groups and cultural backgrounds,

Research which focuses on uplifting mental wellness.

Personality

Interest
• Relationships and/or differences of personality traits and characteristics that impact
a certain dimension in an individual's life.

Learning and Memory

in • Investigation on human mental processes from different developmental stages and

cultural diversities, including experimentation of interventions on certain cognitive
conditions inside and outside academic institutions.

Psycholo Human Relations

• Aims to explore interpersonal, including but not limited to, marital, corporate,

gy
familial, cultural, and social relationships and further offer solutions on such issues
of human relations.

Psychological Disorders
• Scrutinizes psychopathological conditions and various factors that can bring
possible impact on before and after its occurrence.
ETHICS IN
RESEARCH
 Ethics
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that is
concerned with morality—what it means to
behave morally and how people can achieve
that goal.

It can also refer to a set of principles and

practices that provide moral guidance in a
particular field. There is an ethics of business,
medicine, teaching, and of course, scientific
research.
 Moral
Principles
A. Weighing
Risks
Scientific research in psychology can be ethical only if
its risks are outweighed by its benefits. Among the risks
to research participants are that a treatment might fail to

Against help or even be harmful, a procedure might result in

physical or psychological harm, and their right to

Benefits
privacy might be involved.

Among the potential benefits are receiving a helpful

treatment, learning about psychology, experiencing the
satisfaction of contributing to scientific knowledge, and
receiving money or course credit for participating.
Scientific research can have risks and benefits to the
scientific community and to society too (Rosenthal,
1994).
 B. Acting
Responsibility Researchers must act responsibly and with integrity. This

and with means carrying out their research in a thorough and

competent manner, meeting their professional
obligations, and being truthful.
Integrity
Acting with integrity is important because it promotes trust, which is
an essential element of all effective human relationships. Participants
must be able to trust that researchers are being honest with them (e.g.,
about what the study involves), will keep their promises (e.g., to
maintain confidentiality), and will carry out their research in ways
that maximize benefits and minimize risk. An important issue here is
the use of deception.
C. Seeking
Justice Researchers must conduct their research in a just manner.
They should treat their participants fairly, for example, by
giving them adequate compensation for their participation
and making sure that benefits and risks are distributed across
all participants.

For example, in a study of a new and potentially beneficial

psychotherapy, some participants might receive the
psychotherapy while others serve as a control group that
receives treatment. If the psychotherapy turns out to be
effective, it would be fair to offer it to participants in the
control group when the study ends.
 D.
Respecting Researchers must respect people’s rights and dignity
as much as human beings. One element of this is
People’s respecting their autonomy—their right to make their
own choices and take their own actions free from

Rights and coercion.

Dignity
Of fundamental importance here is the concept of
informed consent. This means that researchers obtain
and document people’s agreement to participate in a
study after having informed them of everything that
might reasonably be expected to affect their decision.
 Unavoidable
Ethical Conflict
• It may already be clear that ethical conflict in psychological
research is unavoidable. Because there is a little, if any,
psychological research that is completely risk free, there will
almost always be conflict between risks and benefits.
Research is beneficial to one group (e.g., scientific
community) can be harmful to another (e.g., the research
participants), creating especially difficult trade offs.
 3.Informed Consent for
1. Institutional 2.Informed Consent to
Recording Voices and
Approval Research
Images in Research

APA
Ethics 4.Research participation
of Clients, Students,
and Subordinates
5.Dispensing with
Informed Consent for
Research
6.Offering Inducement
for Research
Participation

Code
Standard 8: Research and 7.Deception in
Research
8.Debriefing
9.Human Care and Use
of Animals in Research
Publication

10.Reporting Research
11.Plagiarism 12.Publication Credit
Results

13.Duplicate 14.Sharing Research

15.Reviewers
Publication Data Data for Verification
Contents Purpose of the Research, Expected Duration, and Procedures;

of Right to Decline to Participate and withdraw from the research once participation has begun;

Informed The foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing;

Consent
Reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate
such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects;

Any prospective research benefits;

Limits of confidentiality;

Incentives for participation;

Whom to contact for questions to ask questions and receive answers.

REFERENCES:
• University of Minnesota Libraries Publishing.
(2016). Research Methods in Psychology.
Minnesota (
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.
0/
).
• https://allea.org/defending-truth-from-pseudo-sc
ience-to-science-disinformation/
• https://silo.tips/download/code-of-ethics-for-phi
lippine-psychologists
• https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_research-met
hods-in-psychology/s07-02-from-moral-principl
es-to-ethic.html