CSC 413

Discrete Mathematics II
Course Instructors:
Dr. Victor T. Odumuyiwa
Dr. Ufuoma C. Ogude

Department of Computer Sciences

University of Lagos

•Lectures:
– E 304, Wednesday 10:00 am to 11:00 am
– E 304, Thursday 8:00 am to 10:00 am
 Goal of CSC 413
The goal of this course is to introduce students to a range of
mathematical tools and skills from discrete mathematics that are
widely used in Computer Sciences and Engineering.

All CSC majors should take this course.

Mathematical tools:

logic, sets, functions, relations, counting, graph theory etc

Mathematical skills:

emphasis on modeling, logic, efficiency

 Course Outline
We study topics in such areas as:
Sets and logic

proof techniques

relations and functions,

counting and combinatorics,

discrete probability,

graphs and trees and

NP-Completeness.
Course Material
Textbook

Discrete Mathematics
and Its Applications
by Kenneth H. Rosen

Use lecture notes as study guide.

 Importance of Discrete Mathematics
Information is stored and manipulated by computers in a discrete fashion

Applications in many different areas

Discrete mathematics is a gateway to more advanced courses

Develops mathematical reasoning skills

Emphasizes the new role of mathematics

The new role of Mathematics
 Make the computer to solve the problem for you
 Modeling (vs. calculations)
 Using logic
» to choose the right model
» to write a correct computer program
» to justify answers
 Efficiency
» make the computer to solve the problem fast
» choose the more efficient model
 Presentation Outlines
Relation and Functions:

 Definition, representation, relation on a set

Properties:

 Reflexivity, symmetry, antisymmetric, irreflexive, asymmetric

Combining relations:

 , , \, composite of relations

Representing relations:

 0-1 matrices, directed graphs

n-ary Relations & their Applications

 Relations
A "relation" is just a relationship between sets of information.

In math a "relation" is a connection between a set of inputs ( domain) and a

set of outputs (range).
 The domain is the set of all x values in the relation

 The range is the set of all y values in the relation

Relationships between elements of sets are represented using the

structure called a relation.

 The most direct way to express a relationship between elements of

two sets is to use ordered pairs made up of two related elements:
(-3, -2), (5, 0), (0, 1), (-1, 4), (4, 5), (2, -5)
Definition
 A relation between elements of two sets is a subset of their
Cartesian products (set of all ordered pairs) i.e. R  AB

Let A and B be sets. A binary relation from A to B is a subset

of A * B.

A binary relation from a set A to a set B is a subset i.e. R  AB

={ (a,b) | aA, bB}

In other words, a binary relation from A to B is a set R of ordered

pairs where the first element of each ordered pair comes from A and
the second element comes from B.

That is, for a binary relation R we have R  AB.

Relations
We use the notation aRb to denote that (a, b)R and aRb
to denote that (a, b)R.
• When (a,b)R (i.e. (a,b) belongs to R), we say that a is related to
b by R.
• Notation: aRb, aRb or aRb
aRb  (a, b)  R
aRb  (a, b)  R

Likewise, n-ary relations express relationships among n

elements
• Let A1, A2, …, An be sets. An n-ary relation of these sets is a
subset of A1×A2×…×An.
The sets A1, A2, ..., An are called the domains of the relation, and
n is called its degree.
The elements of A1A2…An are ordered n-tuples.
Exercises
A binary relation from set A to B is a subset of
Cartesian product A B

Example1: A  {0,1,2} B  {a, b}

A Relation: R  {(0, a ), (0, b), (1, a ), (2, b)}

Example2:
Let A={0, 1, 2} and B={a, b}.
Then {(0, a), (0, b), (1, a), (2, b)} is a relation from A
to B. That is, 0Ra but not 1Rb

0 R a b
a
0 X X
1
1 X
b
2 X
2
Relations
When (a, b) belongs to R, a is said to be related to b by R.

Example3:
Let P be a set of people, C be a set of cars, and D be the
relation describing which person drives which car(s).

P = {Tunde, Philip, Bello, Emeka},

C = {Mercedes, BMW, tricycle}
D = {(Tunde, Mercedes), (Philip, Mercedes),
(Philip, BMW), (Bello, tricycle)}

This means that Tunde drives a Mercedes, Philip drives a

Mercedes and a BMW, Bello drives a tricycle, and Emeka does
not drive any of these vehicles.
Representation
To represent a relation, we can enumerate every element of R

Example
Let A = {a1,a2,a3,a4,a5} and B = {b1,b2,b3}
Let R be a relation from A to B defined as follows
R = {(a1,b1),(a1,b2),(a1,b3),(a3,b1),(a3,b2),(a3,b3),(a5,b1)}

We can represent this relation Graphically

A a1 b1 B
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4
a5
 Representations (other than equations)

Table:
x -3 -1 0 2 4 5
y -2 4 1 -5 5 0

Graph:
(-3, -2)
(5, 0)
(0, 1)
(-1, 4)
(4, 5)
(2, -5)
 Representations (other than equations)

Mapping
(-3, -2), (5, 0), (0, 1), (-1, 4), (4, 5), (2, -5)

-3 -1 0 2 4 5

-5 -2 0 1 4 5
 Representations (other than equations)

Mapping (another way)

(-3, -2), (5, 0), (0, 1), (-1, 4), (4, 5), (2, -5)

-3 -5
-1 -2
0 0
2 1
4 4
5 5
Exercise
A = set of all cities
B = set of the 36 states in Nigeria

Define the relation R by specifying that (a, b) belongs

to R if city a is in state b.
 Functions
Definition:
 A function or mapping (Defined as f: X →Y) is a
relationship from elements of one set X to elements of
another set Y (X and Y are non-empty sets).

X is called Domain and Y is called Codomain of function ‘f’.

 We write f: X→Y. Alternatively we write f(x)=y.

“a function is…a relation in which every input is paired with

exactly one output”
Definition:
 a function f is a rule which assigns to each member x of a set X a
unique member y of set Y.

 A function can be One-To-One, ONTO and INVERTIBLE Functions

 A function f: X→Y is said to be invertible if there exists a function

g: Y→X
 For a function f the following statements are equivalent f(x)=y, xfy,
(x,y)∈f.
 Functions as Relations
 A “function” is a well-behaved relation, that is, given a starting point
we know exactly where to go.

Note the difference between a relation and a function:

 In a relation, each a ∈ A can map to multiple elements in B.

 Relations are generalizations of functions.

Thus, for each element a of A an element b exists in B but not vice-
versa.
• Not every relation is a function.
• Every function is a relation.

 Functions find their application in various fields like

representation of the computational complexity of algorithms,
counting objects, study of sequences and strings, to name a few.
 Functions as relations
 Recall relation is a subset of AxB (Let A and B be two nonempty sets.)

Hence a function f from a set A to a set B assigns exactly one element

of B to each element of A
A function represents a relation where exactly one element of B is
related to each element of A
 Function ‘f’ is a relation on X and Y s.t for each x ∈ X, there exists a
unique y ∈ Y such that (x,y) ∈ R. x is called pre-image and y is called
image of function f.

 You might remember that a function f from a set A to a set B assigns a unique element of B to each
element of A. The graph of f is the set of ordered pairs (a, b) such that b = f(a).
 Since the graph of f is a subset of AB, it is a relation from A to B.
 Moreover, for each element a of A, there is exactly one ordered pair in the graph that has a as its
first element. Conversely, if R is a relation from A to B such that every element in A is the first
element of exactly one ordered pair of R, then a function can be defined with R as its graph.
 This is done by assigning to an element aA the unique element bB such that (a, b)R.
 Relations on a Set
Definition:
A relation on the set A is a relation from A to A and is a
subset of AA.
In other words, a relation on the set A is a relation from A
to A, i.e., a subset of A x A

Example1:
A relation on set A  {1,2,3,4}
Solution:
R  {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (3,4), (4,1), (4,4)}
Example2:

Let A be the set {1, 2, 3, 4}. Which ordered pairs are in the
relation R = {(a,b)|a divides b}?

Solution:

Since (a, b) is in R if and only if a and b are positive integers

not exceeding 4 such that a divides b

R={(1,1),(1,2),(1,3),(1,4),(2,2),(2,4),(3,3),(4,4)}

1 1 R 1 2 3 4

2 2 1 X X X X

3 3 2 X X
3 X
4 4
4 X
Exercise2
Consider these relations on set of integers

R1={(a,b)|a≤b}

R2={(a,b)|a>b}

R3={(a,b)|a=b or a=-b}

R4={(a,b)|a=b}

R5={(a,b)|a=b+1}

R6={(a,b)|a+b≤3}

Which of these relations contain each of the pairs

(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (1, -1) and (2, 2)?

Example3
How many different relations can we define on a set A
with n elements?/How many relations are there on a set
with n elements?
A relation on a set A is a subset of AA. How many elements are in AA ?
There are n2 elements in AA, so how many subsets (= relations on A) does
AA have?
The number of subsets that we can form out of a set with m elements is
2m. Therefore, 2n2 subsets can be formed out of AA.

Solution: We can define 2n2 different relations on A.

Note:
As A x A has n2 elements, there are subsets 2
2n
Thus there are relations
n 2
on a set with n elements
2
That is, there are 3 2
relations on the set {a, b, c}
9
2  2  512
 Assignment
Define with detailed example the following
functions:
1.One-To-One,

2.ONTO and

3.INVERTIBLE